Measuring and Contextualizing "Chemistry" in the Movies

Measuring and Contextualizing "Chemistry" in the Movies

Tracy Sutton and Gregory Fouts, Ph.D

University of Calgary

Online Publication Date: February 8, 2005

Journal of Media Psychology, Volume 10, No. 1, Winter, 2005

Abstract

The purpose was to conduct a content analysis of North American movies to assess the occurrence of "chemistry" between characters and to determine whether "chemistry" is related to the success of movies and/or particular contents of movies. Eighty movies were analyzed for instances of "chemistry," kinds of relationships in which it occurs, and film techniques associated with "chemistry." Chemistry between characters was associated with movie success (winning an Academy Award® and/or being a top grossing movie). "Chemistry" was more likely to occur in opposite-sex and romantic relationships and between people similar in age. Film techniques such as the use of lyrical and slower music, dimmer lighting, and camera close-ups were associated with moments of "chemistry" in the movies.

Many of us have been fortunate enough to have experienced the tantalizing yet elusive phenomenon of "chemistry." Although subjective, you know "it" when it occurs; you may experience "chemistry" while interacting with another person or you may observe it occurring between two people. One place we may observe "chemistry" is in the movies. For the past two decades, media researchers have analyzed movies for a variety of contents (e.g., violence, racism, sexism, portrayals of the mentally ill; Hyler, Gabbard, & Schneider, 1991; Lawson & Fouts, 2004; Smoodin, 1994; Tseelon, 1995) as well as the techniques (e.g., musical scores, special effects) used to increase the enjoyment of movie-goers (Giannetti, 1990; Parent, 2002; Spiegel, 2002). Much of this research has been primarily motivated by a desire to understand why people go to the movies and how they are affected by the movies they watch (Edgerton & Marsden, 2002; Fischoff, 1998; Rockler, 2002). One content that has not been scientifically investigated is the "chemistry" or "special connection" that may occur between characters (or the actors portraying the characters) in movies. For example, who can forget the "chemistry" between Humphrey Bogart and Ingrid Bergman in Casablanca, or Meg Ryan and Tom Hanks in Sleepless in Seattle, Kate Winslet and Leonardo DiCaprio in Titanic, or Demi Moore and Patrick Swayze in Ghost? The purpose of the present study was to conduct a content analysis of North American movies to assess the occurrence of "chemistry" on screen and to determine whether "chemistry" is related to the success of movies and/or particular contents of movies.

Understanding "chemistry" in movies is important for two reasons. First, researchers have identified several motives for attending movies such as enjoyment, fantasy fulfillment, and emotional involvement (e.g., Fischoff, 1998; Rockler, 2002). Observing the "chemistry" between two people may be a powerful motive not only for choosing to watch particular kinds of movies (e.g., romantic comedies, dramas), but also for preferring to watch particular actors working together. Second, if "chemistry" is associated with the success of movies (e.g., critical acclaim, box office receipts) and/or particular contents of movies (e.g., kinds of relationships in which it occurs, film techniques), movie producers and directors may wish to increase the use of "chemistry" to optimize their success in attracting movie audiences, e.g., by choosing particular actors, using particular contexts and film techniques.

"Chemistry"

The "chemistry" occurring between two people has been investigated in psychology under the concept of "affect attunement" (Fouts, 1997; Hyrnchak & Fouts, 1998; Poulsen & Fouts, 2001a; Stern, 1985). It is a dynamic process of emotional exchange in which two individuals experience a sense of "oneness" and intersubjective relatedness (Stern, 1985). This interconnected, affective and subjective union is created by individuals mutually focusing on one another and spontaneously harmonizing and matching their internal states (e.g., feelings, arousal) in a non-contrived, unconscious way (Fouts, 1994, 1997; Poulsen & Fouts, 2001a,b); the latter is usually indicated by the matching of non-verbal cues, e.g., facial expressions, body positioning, gestures (Davis & Hadiks, 1994; Geerts, Bouhuys, & Van de Hoofdakker, 1996; Reyens, 1996). Attunement can occur in different kinds of relationships and in different contexts. For example, it can occur during the bonding of mother and infant, between two brothers saying goodbye as one of them leaves for war, between best friends at a coffee shop when they are "caught up" in a conversation, or between lovers "pillow talking" after making love. Regardless of the kind of relationship, being attuned is considered to be a fundamental and deeply satisfying element in close relationships (Biringen, Emde, & Pipp-Siegel, 1997; Inch & Fouts, 2004; Schore, 1994).

Research has shown that attunement between two people can accurately and reliably be recognized by others (Hrynchak & Fouts, 1998; Poulsen & Fouts, 2001a,b). This awareness often results in spontaneous, descriptive expressions such as "chemistry," "on the same wavelength," "soul-mates," "in the flow," and "in the moment together" (Fouts, 1997; Inch & Fouts, 2004; Poulsen & Fouts, 2001a). Thus, movie-goers may observe the "chemistry" between actors/characters and use it in selecting and judging movies. Indeed, movie critics and reviewers have often noted the "chemistry" between actors and have suggested that it is associated with the popularity and success of movies (e.g., Geffner, 2004; Hart, 2001; Nechak, 2002; Pearlman, 1995).

Movies vary in success and there have been a few attempts in predicting movie success (e.g., Litman, 1983). Two major indices of North American success are receipt of an Academy Award® (Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, 2002) and being a top grossing movie at the box office (Dirks, 2002). For example, Gone With The Wind and Titanic were successful in both categories; How Green Was My Valley and Shakespeare in Love won Oscars but were not top grossing movies; Jaws and Sixth Sense were top grossing but not Oscar winners. In the present study, movies were selected based upon having received critical acclaim (Academy Award® for best actor, actress, director, or picture) and/or box office success (American 100 top grossing movies of all time, adjusted for inflation; Dirks, 2002). Four categories of movie success were analyzed: (a) both Oscar winners and top grossing; (b) Oscar winners that were not top grossing; (c) top grossing movies that were not Oscar winners; and (d) movies that were neither Oscar winners nor top grossing. It was expected that movies having artistic and/or financial success (categories a-c) would be more likely to contain "chemistry" between the actors/characters because such movies may permit viewers (e.g., movie audiences, film reviewers, other actors) to identify with and become emotionally involved with the "chemistry" occurring between the people on screen (Feilitzen & Linne, 1975; Tan, 1996), thus increasing their enjoyment and positive evaluation of the movies.

Film Contents Associated with "Chemistry"

Particular contents of movies may be associated with and facilitate the perception of "chemistry" between movie characters. There were two categories of interest - kind of relationships and film techniques.

Relationships. Movies reflect popular cultural beliefs and stereotypes and are directed toward audiences with particular demographics (Austin, 1989; Entertainment Media, 2003; Fischoff, 1998; Fischoff, Lewis, & Antonio, 1997; Wilson, 2003). A majority of movie-goers are in their late teens to early 30’s and have opposite-sex, romantic relationships. Therefore, it was expected that movie directors/producers would appeal to this demographic by presenting moments of "chemistry" between two people having these characteristics. This expectation was based on (a) the matching hypothesis (e.g., Byrne & Nelson, 1965; Schachter, 1951) which suggests that "likes attract likes," i.e., people go to movies because of the perceived similarities between themselves and the characters; and (b) social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954) which posits that people compare themselves with others, with these comparisons being based on perceived similarities and personal relevance.

Film techniques. Particular film techniques may be associated with "chemistry" to highlight and increase the perception of "chemistry" between the characters. In this study, five were examined - music, pace, number of cuts, camera shot, and lighting level.

Movies use music to establish the mood of the story and reflect the internal states of characters (e.g., emotions, feelings, arousal; Giannetti, 1990; Martin, 2002; Parrent, 2002; Spiegel, 2002). According to Stern (1985), the type and tempo of music may reflect particular qualities of internal states. For example, more lyrical (as opposed to structured and exuberant) and slower tempo music may reflect being in the "flow" with another and "in the moment" in which time "slows down" or "stands still," common perceptions associated with "chemistry." Other specific techniques may also contribute to these perceptions such as the use of slow motion and fewer film edits (Parrent, 2002; Spiegel, 2002). Therefore, it was expected that moments of "chemistry" would be associated with these musical qualities and techniques.

Some techniques are considered especially important in evoking a sense of intimacy (Parrent, 2002; Spiegel, 2002). For example, a close-up camera shot (e.g., shoulder and head shot, tight on facial expression) may be used to indicate an intimate connection or the unspoken, internal dialogue of the characters. A long camera shot (e.g., a full body view and setting details) may evoke more cognition or understanding than emotion, implying an emotional distance (Spiegel, 2002). As well, lower levels of lighting may suggest the softness and privacy of intimacy more than glaring levels of bright sunlight (Spiegel, 2002). Therefore, it was expected that moments of "chemistry" would be associated with the use of close-up camera shots and lower levels of lighting.

Method

Movies and Design of Study

Movies between 1939 and 1998 were selected using two lists, i.e., the Academy Awards® (Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, 2002) and the Top 100 American Films of All Time (Dirks, 2002); the latter list is adjusted for inflation. A 2 X 2 matrix was used to select the movies such that each cell represented the combination of the presence or absence of movies winning an Oscar and/or ranked a top grossing movie (see Table 1). An examination of the two lists revealed that only 20 movies have ever won both an Oscar (in the categories of best director, best actor, best actress, and/or best picture) and were in the top 100 grossing American movies of all time. To match this sample of 20, 20 other movies were selected for each of the three remaining cells, i.e., only Oscar winners, only top grossing, and movies that didn’t appear on either list (control or comparison condition). The movies in the three latter cells were matched for the year each movie in the Oscar + top grossing cell was released into theaters. If there wasn’t a movie for a specific year in a particular cell, then a movie closest in proximity to the required year was selected. If there were more than one movie to choose from in a particular year, a movie was randomly selected as representative of that year. Movies in the control condition were selected by determining which movies were made in the required year, which were available in video stores, and then randomly selecting one.

Table 1

Four Categories of Coded Movies – Presence and/or Absence of Academy Award® (Oscar) and Being a Top Grossing Movie

Oscar Winner & Top Grosser		Oscar Winner & Non-Top Grosser
1939	Gone with the Wind	1939	Goodbye Mr. Chips
1941	Sergeant York	1941	How Green Was My Valley
1946	The Best Years of Our Lives	1946	To Each His Own
1952	The Greatest Show on Earth	1952	Little Sheba
1956	Around the World in 80 Days	1956	Giant
1957	The Bridge on the River Kwai	1957	The Three Faces of Eve
1959	Ben Hur	1959	GiGi (1958)
1961	West Side Story	1961	Judgement at Nuremberg
1964	Mary Poppins	1964	Lilies of the Field
1964	My Fair Lady	1964	Cat Ballou
1965	Sound of Music	1965	Darling
1967	The Graduate	1967	In the Heat of the Night
1968	Funny Girl	1968	Charly
1972	The Godfather	1972	Cabaret
1973	The Sting	1973	Save the Tiger
1975	One Flew Over The Cuckoos Nest	1975	Godfather II (1976)
1976	Rocky	1976	Network
1994	Forest Gump	1994	Blue Sky
1997	Titanic	1997	As Good as it Gets
1998	Saving Private Ryan	1998	Shakespeare in Love
Non-Oscar Winner & Top Grosser		Non-Oscar Winner & Non-Top Grosser
1939	Bells of St. Mary's (1945)	1939	Roaring 20’s
1941	Duel in the Sun (1946)	1941	Citizen Kane
1946	House of Wax (1953)	1946	Yearling
1952	The Robe (1953)	1952	Singing in the Rain
1956	The 10 Commandments	1956	Searchers
1957	Rear Window	1957	12 Angry Men
1959	Swiss Family Robinson (1960)	1959	Rio Bravo
1961	Lets Make Love (1960)	1961	El Cid
1964	Goldfinger	1964	Viva Las Vegas
1964	It’s a Mad Mad Mad Mad World (1963)	1964	Pink Panther
1965	Doctor Zhivago	1965	Naked Prey
1967	Thunderball (1968)	1967	Hombre
1968	Mash (1970)	1968	Bullitt
1972	The Poseidon Adventure	1972	Deliverance
1973	American Graffiti	1973	The Offense
1975	Jaws	1975	Dog Day Afternoon
1976	Smokey and the Bandit	1976	Outlaw Josey Wales
1994	Mrs. Doubtfire (1993)	1994	Killing Zoe
1997	Men in Black	1997	Spice World
1998	Sixth Sense	1998	Wag the Dog

Coding Manual

A coding manual was developed to systematize the content analysis of each movie. It contained the variables coded, operational definitions, criteria for coding, and examples; it was piloted and refined using movies not coded for the study.

"Chemistry." Each movie was observed for scenes involving the interaction of two people. These scenes were then scrutinized (often repeatedly and frame-by-frame) for instances of "chemistry" using the criteria for affect attunement (Hyrnchak & Fouts, 1998; Poulson & Fouts, 2001a,b) – mutual focus, a match in emotional expression, and a subjective sense of "oneness" between them. Mutual focus involved both characters being focused on one another by sight, touch, physical orientation, or some other means indicating mutual awareness and focus; e.g., both characters looking at each other, both aware and focused on the touch of one of their hands on the other. A match in emotional expression involved both characters simultaneously experiencing the same emotional state. This was determined by observing the nonverbal cues of emotion (e.g., postures, facial expressions, gestures) and the qualities associated with these cues (e.g., intensity, duration, rhythm; Stern, 1985). A sense of "oneness" involved forming a global, subjective impression that the characters (a) were completely emotionally available, open and safe with one another; and (b) had a sense of being a "whole," "in the moment," "on the same wavelength," or completely "absorbed" with one another. Each scene was rated as to the degree of occurrence of each criterion on a 3-point Likert scale (1 = zero or low degree, 2 = medium, 3 = high, clearly evident and pronounced). This coding procedure has been found to be highly reliable (.90 inter-coder agreement) and possesses construct validity (Fouts & Dent-Cox, 1998; Hrynchak & Fouts, 1998; Poulsen & Fouts, 2001a,b). Scenes in which the sum of the three ratings was six or higher were deemed as instances or episodes of "chemistry" occurring between two people. Only episodes of "chemistry" were then coded for the following variables.

Kinds of relationships. Three variables were coded. The age of each character was coded by examining each character and determining his/her age (not the actor’s age). Six age categories were used: under 18, 18 - 34 years, 35 - 44 years, 45 - 59 years, 60 years and over, and "other" (e.g., ageless alien). This was used to determine whether the two people were in a same-age category. The sex of each character was coded so that the genders in the relationship (opposite vs. same sex) could be determined. The quality of the relationship was coded using seven categories: romantic (e.g., high school sweethearts), familial (e.g., mother, uncle), close friends (e.g., confidant), casual friends (e.g., co-worker), strangers (e.g., store clerk), and unknown (e.g., unable to determine).

Film techniques. Music was coded using three variables: (a) Presence or absence; if present, then (b) type of music using five categories: lyrical (e.g., ambiguous beat, light and flowing), exuberant (e.g., energetic and exciting), moody/tension (e.g., dark, uneasy), despair (e.g., heavy and depressing), and "unable to determine" (may include more than one type of music); and (c) music tempo (beats/minute) by counting the number of downbeats present for the duration of the music. The presence or absence of slow-motion and the number of film edits (number of different shots in the scene) occurring in the episode were recorded. Lighting level was coded using four categories: dark (e.g., dusk, interior with candle light), average (e.g., usual indoor lights, daylight), bright (e.g., high noon, spot light) and "undetermined" (e.g., many different levels in the episode). The camera shot occurring at the peak moment of "chemistry" was coded using four categories: long shot (full body at a distance), medium shot (knee/stomach to head shot), close-up (shoulder and head shot or close up of an object), and "unable to determine" (e.g., slow camera zoom during the peak moment). This coding at peak moment involved responding to the gestalt of all the cues in the episode (e.g., high ratings for the three criteria for "chemistry," use of other movie techniques such as a rise in music and dim lighting) and determining the moment of perceived maximum intensity of "chemistry."

Coder Training and Reliability

There were two procedures involved in coder training and determining reliability. The identification of "chemistry" episodes involved the careful, thorough training of the coder. First, the primary coder was familiarized with the concept and the three criteria of "chemistry" (mutual focus, match in emotional expression, sense of "oneness"), given numerous examples of pictures of people experiencing "chemistry," and received experience in rating still pictures of people in moments of "chemistry." The pictures had been used in past research (Hrynchak & Fouts, 1998) and have high reliability and validity for expert coders. After this initial training, the coder and trainer independently coded additional pictures of people who were at varying levels of "chemistry" (no "chemistry" to high levels of "chemistry") by rating the pictures for degree of occurrence of each of the three criteria of "chemistry" using a 1 – 3 scale (low, medium, high) for each criterion. The three scores were summed to provide an overall level of "chemistry." Intercoder agreement was calculated (agreement ¸ agreements + disagreements); an agreement required an exact match of level of "chemistry" between the two coders (range 3 – 9). The intercoder agreement was 95.9%. The coder was then trained using video clips of characters experiencing "chemistry" obtained from commercial movies (Fouts, 1994) not used in the present study. Training was completed when the coder and trainer achieved an acceptable level of intercoder agreement (.87) after independently coding a sample of the movie clips.

After establishing the primary coder’s reliability, the 80 movies were independently coded in random order for the occurrence of "chemistry" episodes. There were 109 episodes identified as instances of "chemistry."

The training for coding relationships and film techniques involved presenting the coding manual to a second coder, with the primary coder serving as the trainer. Training continued until both coders agreed on the interpretation of each variable and its coding criteria. Once completed, the both coders independently coded the "chemistry" episodes without further consultation; 61% of the episodes (randomly selected across all the movies) were coded by the second coder. The intercoder agreements for the variables were as follows: Ages of characters – 85%, genders – 100%, quality of relationship – 73%, presence of music – 94%, type of music – 81%, slow-motion – 100%, lighting level – 87%, camera shot – 84%, and music tempo – 88%. Number of film edits was not coded for reliability since it merely required counting edits.

Results and Discussion

There were 109 episodes of "chemistry" in the 80 movies. The five movies containing the most "chemistry" were Shakespeare in Love (12 episodes), The Robe (8), Titanic (7), Sound of Music (7), and How Green Was My Valley (6). Table 2 presents the movies (n = 35) containing "chemistry," the number of episodes of "chemistry," and the actors for the 10 movies having the most "chemistry" episodes.

Table 2

Movies Containing "Chemistry," Number of "Chemistry" Episodes, and Actors in the 10 Movies with the Most "Chemistry"

Title	# of Episodes	Actors in Scene
Shakespeare in Love	12	Gwyneth Paltrow and Jospeh Fiennes (all)
The Robe (1953)	8	Jean Simmons and Richard Burton (7), Richard Burton and Michawl Rennie (1)
Sound of Music	7	Christopher Plummer and Julie Andrews (4), Christopher Plummer and Children (1), Christopher Plummer and Charmain Carr (1), Julie Andrews and Peggy Wood (1)
Titanic	7	Kate Winslet and Leonardo DiCaprio (all)
How Green Was My Valley	6	Maureen O'Hara and Walter Pidgeon (3), Roddy McDowall (1), Morton Lowry and Arthur Shields (1)
West Side Story	6	Richard Beymer and Natalie Wood (all)
Cabaret	6	Liza Minnelli and Michael York (4), Liza Minnelli and Helmut Griem (1) Helmut Griem and Michael York (1)
Singing in the Rain	5	Debbie Reynolds and Gene Kelly (4), Gene Kelly and Donald O'Connor (1)
Charly	5	Cliff Robertson and Claire Bloom (all)
Ben Hur	4	Charlton Heston and Stephen Goyd (2), Charlton Heston and Haya Harayeet (1), Charlotn Heston and Unknown Senator (1)
Sixth Sense (1999)	3
Smokey and the Bandit	3
Swiss Family Robinson (1960)	3
El Cid	3
The Best Years of Our Lives	3
Gone with the Wind	2
The Godfather	2
Forest Gump	2
Giant	2
Mrs. Doubtfire (1993)	2
Doctor Zhivago	2
Searchers	2
Viva Las Vegas	2
Sergeant York	1
Funny Girl	1
The Sting	1
In the Heat of the Night	1
Godfather II (1976)	1
Duel in the Sun (1946)	1
Rear Window	1
Goldfinger	1
Jaws	1
Yearling	1
Naked Prey	1
Outlaw Josey Wales	1

Movie success. The relationship²between the occurrence of "chemistry" and movie success was examined in two ways (see Table 3). First, of the 109 "chemistry" episodes, 33% occurred in the Oscar Winning +Top Grossing movies, 30% in the Oscar Winning but Not Top Grossing movies, and 23% in the Top Grossing but not Oscar Winning movies; only 14% of the instances of "chemistry" occurred in movies having neither artistic nor financial success. Second, the average number of "chemistry" episodes occurring in each category was calculated. The average was 1.80 episodes in the Oscar Winning +Top Grossing movies, 1.65 episodes in the Oscar Winning but Not Top Grossing movies, 1.25 episodes in the Top Grossing but not Oscar Winning movies, and only 0.75 episodes in movies having neither artistic nor financial success.

Table 3

Number and Percent of "Chemistry" episodes (n = 109) Containing "Chemistry," and Average Number of "Chemistry Episodes in Each Movie Category

Oscar Winner &

Top Grossing

36 episodes

33% of total episodes

Mean – 1.8/movie

Oscar Winner &

Non-Top Grossing

33 episodes

30% of total episodes

Mean – 1.65/movie

Top Grossing &

Non-Oscar Winner

25 episodes

23% of total episodes

Mean – 1.25/movie

Non-Top Grossing &

Non-Oscar Winner

15 episodes

14% of total episodes

Mean – 0.75/movie

The consistent pattern of results using the two measures indicates that artistic and/or financial success of a movie is associated with the occurrence of "chemistry" in the movie. More specifically, a low level or the absence of "chemistry" is associated with a low level of movie success (no Academy Award® and not a top-grossing movie); an intermediate level of "chemistry" is associated with having one measure of success, with movies having the most "chemistry" more likely to have both indices of success. These findings have two implications. First, movies having "chemistry" between two people are popular and garner critical acclaim; thus, the presence of "chemistry" may be a powerful motive for (a) selecting particular movies to watch and/or (b) wanting to watch the "chemistry" between particular actors. This may reflect movie fans’ identification with characters having "chemistry," their own "resonance" and emotional involvement with moments of "chemistry," and/or fantasy fulfillment in desiring such "connection," which are important motives for movie viewing (Fischoff, 1998; Tan, 1996). Second, predicting the success of movies is difficult (Litman, 1983). The findings suggest that the movie industry may be better able to predict movie success by choosing particular scripts and actors and using directing strategies that are conducive for the occurrence of "chemistry."

Kinds of relationships. Collapsing across all 109 "chemistry" episodes, several variables were found to be associated with moments of "chemistry." That is, 70% of the "chemistry" episodes involved people similar in age, with most of these (78%) being 18 – 35 year olds. Eighty-five percent of the relationships involved people of the opposite sex; and 56% of the episodes involved romantic relationships.

These findings have three implications. First, attunement between two people is more likely to occur in close, emotional relationships. Thus, movie "chemistry" appears to reflect the nature and circumstances in which attunement may occur in the lives of the movie audience. Second, the kinds of relationships in which "chemistry" occurs on-screen likely reflect the needs and desires and life stages of the movie-going audience, especially young adults and couples interested in intimate relationships (Erikson, 1959). For example, "chemistry" or attunement between two people is an important ingredient in relationship satisfaction among couples in this age group (Inch & Fouts, 2004). Thus, "chemistry" in on-screen relationships may attract and satisfy movie-going audiences through their perceiving similarities between themselves and the characters (e.g., Byrne & Nelson, 1965; Schachter, 1951), comparing themselves with relevant others (Festinger, 1954), and wishing to be like, have, and/or emulate the relationships and "chemistry" on screen (Feilitzen & Linne, 1975). Third, producers may consider attracting a wider age range of audience (e.g., 35+) by presenting "chemistry" in characters representative of the demographic they wish to target (Geffner, 2004).

It is also important to note the variability in the kinds of relationships in which "chemistry" occurred on-screen. For example, 30% of "chemistry" episodes occurred in relationships in which the two people were not in the same age category; 15 % involved same-sex relationships; and 43% involved non-romantic relationships (e.g., family, friends), with 17% of "chemistry" episodes occurring between "strangers." The latter is consistent with wishful identification and the cultural belief in "love at first sight" (Naumann, 2003), likely a kind of "chemistry." These findings indicate that movies reflect the reality that "chemistry," "being on the same wavelength," "soul mates" and "being attuned" occur in many kinds of relationships (Davis & Hadiks, 1994; Fouts, 1997; Inch & Fouts, 2004).

Film techniques. Particular film techniques were associated with the occurrence of "chemistry." Seventy-nine percent of all "chemistry" episodes contained music, with 74% of these having lyrical, flowing music and 78% having an average or slower tempo (less than 30 beats per minute). The presence of music not only signals emotional shifts within and between scenes, but also what the characters are feeling (Giannetti, 1990). Thus, the music enveloping the two people points to something special happening in the scene, i.e., the emotional sharing of themselves in moments of "chemistry." The use of lyrical music and slower music tempos is also consistent with the experience of "chemistry" or being in "flow" with another in which time "slows down "or "stands still" (Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 1988; Fouts, 1997). This experience was reinforced by a majority of "chemistry" episodes (58%) containing two or fewer film edits, thus producing a slower rhythm or pace within the scene. Unexpectedly, slow motion was not used in any of the "chemistry" episodes. Although commonly used to depict a sense of "time standing still" and to heighten emotional content, its absence may reflect its relative rarity in movies (Spiegel, 2002).

"Chemistry" is more likely to occur in close, intimate relationships (Inch & Fouts, 2004). Therefore, were film techniques employed to create a sense of intimacy in the "chemistry" episodes? The peak or most intense moment of "chemistry" in each episode was examined for the use of close-up shots; these shots are considered the most intimate of camera shots, revealing the inner thoughts and feelings of the characters (Spiegel, 2002). A majority (68%) of the peak moments involved a close-up camera shot. According to Giannetti (1990), lower lighting levels contribute to the overall sense of intimacy; this likely creates an environment in which "chemistry" can occur. Only 1% of the "chemistry" episodes had bright illumination (e.g., daylight), with the vast majority having average (85%) or low (14%) illumination. Thus, both close camera shots and lower levels of illumination were used to produce an experience of intimacy in which "chemistry" may occur.

In summary, music, pace, camera shot and illumination were all associated with "chemistry" on screen. This indicates that certain film techniques do effectively capture the essence and enhance the perception of "chemistry" in the movies. With a deeper understanding of these associated elements, movie makers can further develop the experience of "chemistry" on screen and, in turn, likely increase the success of their movies.

Suggestions for future research. There are five suggestions for future research. First, it is unknown whether other kinds of Academy Awards® (e.g., best screenplay, cinematography, music score, foreign movies) are associated with "chemistry" in the movies; these should be considered in future research. Second, different genres and contexts of films should be analyzed to ascertain whether they are associated with moments of "chemistry." Third, researchers may wish to consider the effect of observing "chemistry" on audience members; e.g., do they better identify with the characters, does "chemistry" promote romantic feelings? Fourth, the movie-going experience is an interaction of both artistic intent and audience perception (Blumer & Katz, 1974, as cited in Fischoff, 1998). Thus, researchers may wish to examine individual differences that may influence the perception of "chemistry" in the movies, which may influence audience members’ selection and enjoyment of movies with "chemistry." And finally, to further increase the validity of ratings of "chemistry," researchers may wish to assess the relationship between the coding procedure used in the present study and the ratings of producers/directors/writers as well as other voting members of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.

References

Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Science (2002). Retrieved June 20, 2002, from http://www.oscars.org.

Austin, B. A. (1989). Immediate seating: A look at movie audiences. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Byrne, D., & Nelson, D. (1965). Attraction as a linear function of proportion of positive reinforcements. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1, 659-663.

Biringen, Z., Emde, R. N., & Pipp-Siegel, S. (1997). Dissynchrony, conflict and resolution: Positive contributions to infant development. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 6, (1), 4-19.

Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Csikszentmihalyi, I. (Eds.) (1988). Optimal experience: Psychological studies of flow in consciousness. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Davis, M., & Hadiks, D. (1994). Nonverbal aspects of therapist attunement. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 50(3), 393-405.

Dirks, T. (2002). The Greatest Films. Retrieved June 5, 2002, from http://www.moviesite.org.

Edgerton, G. R. & Marsden, M. T. (2002). Media Literacy and Education: The Teacher-Scholar in Film and Television. Journal of Popular Film & Television, 30 (1), 2-6.

Entertainment Media. (n.d.). Audience Demographics. Retrieved March 27, 2003, from http://www.entertainmentmedia.com/demographics.htm.

Erikson, E. (1959). Identity and the life cycle. Psychological Issues,1, 1-171.

Feilitzen, C., & Linne, O. (1975). Identifying with television characters. Journal of Communication, 25, 51-55.

Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117-140.

Fischoff, S. (1998). Favorite Film Choices: Influences of the Beholder and the Beheld. Journal of Media Psychology, 3 (4), Retrieved July 27, 2004, from http://www.calstatela.edu/faculty/sfischo/movie3.html.

Fischoff, S., Lewis, D., & Antonio, J. (1997, August). Favorite films and film genres as a function of race, age, and gender. Presentation to the America Psychological Association, Chicago.

Fouts, G. (1994, June). Moments of "connection" on television and in the movies. Paper presented to the Canadian Communications Association, Calgary.

Fouts, G. (1997). For a moment in time: Discovering affective attunement (23-minute video). Calgary: University of Calgary Communications Media

Fouts, G., & Dent-Cox, T. (1998, October). Attachment and affect attunement in preschool children. Presentation to the Second International Conference on Attachment and Psychopathology, Toronto.

Geffner, D. (2004, summer). The making of a blockbuster. Moviemaker Magazine. Retrieved September 29, 2004, from http://www.moviemaker.com/issues/55/blockbuster.html

Geerts, E., Bouhuys, N., & Van de Hoofdakker, R. H. (1996). Nonverbal attunement between depressed patients and an interviewer predicts subsequent improvement. Journal of Affective Disorders, 40, 15-21.

Giannetti, L. (1990). Understanding movies 5^th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Hart, M. (2001). Celluloid couples: A blast or a blah? Retrieved October 15, 2004, from

http://www.zap2it.com/movies/movies/spotlight/story/0,1259,---4926,00.html

Hrynchak, D., & Fouts, G. (1998). Perception of affect attunement by adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 21, 43-48.

Hyler, S. E., Gabbard, G. O. & Schneider, I. (1991). Homicidal maniacs and narcissistic parasites: Stigmatization of mentally ill persons in the movies. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 42, 1044-1048.

Inch, R., & Fouts, G. (2004). Disclosure, affect attunement, and satisfaction in romantic relationships. Submitted and currently under editorial review.

Lawson, A., & Fouts, G. (2004). Mental illness in Disney animated films. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 49 (5), 165-169.

Litman, B. R. (1983). Predicting success of theatrical movies: An empirical study. Journal of Popular Culture, 16(4), 159-175.

Martin, R. (2002, summer). How and when to score. FilmMaker, 10 (4), 35-40.

Naumann, E. (2003). Love at first sight: The Stories and Science Behind Instant Attraction. Retrieved April 20, 2003 from http://www.loveatfirstsight.org

Nechak, P. (2002). Stars' chemistry saves 'Punch-Drunk Love's' weak script. Retrieved October 15, 2004, from http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/movies/91641_punchdrunk18q.shtml

Parrent, J. (2002). The complete idiot’s guide to filmmaking. Indianapolis, IN: Alpha Books.

Pearlman, C. (1995). On-screen chemistry: How and why do some couples spark? The Calgary Herald, May 31, page B-8.

Poulsen, J. & Fouts, G. (2001a). Facilitating academic achievement through affect attunement in the classroom. Journal of Educational Research, 94(3), 185-190.

Poulson, J., & Fouts, G. (2001b). Impact of drama-based teaching on academic performance of students with/without learning disabilities. International Journal of Practical Approaches to Disability, 24(1/2/3), 44-49.

Reyens, R. (1996). The dream, communication, and attunement. Psychotherapy, 33(3), 479-484.

Rockler, N. R. (2002). Overcoming "It’s just entertainment." Perspective by Incongruity as Strategy for Media Literacy. Journal of Popular Film & Television, 30 (1), 16-22.

Schachter, S. (1951). Deviation, rejection, and communication. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 46, 190-207.

Schore, A. N. (1994). Affect regulation and the origin of self. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Smoodin, E. (1994). Disney discourse. New York, NY: Routledge.

Spiegel, E. (2002). The innocence of the eye: A filmmaker’s guide. Beverly Hills, CA: Silman-James Press.

Stern, D.N. (1985). The interpersonal world of the infant: A view from psychoanalysis and developmental psychology. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Tan, E. (1996). Emotion and the structure of narrative film. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Tseelon, E. (1995). The Little Mermaid: An icon of women’s condition in patriarchy, and the human condition of castration. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 76, 1017-1030.

Wilson, K. (n.d.), Audience. Retrieved March 27, 2003, from http://www.mediaknowall.com/audiencegcse.html.

Endnotes

1. Address correspondence to the second author, Dept. of Psychology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2N IN4, gfouts@ucalgary.ca

2. Tests of statistical significance are not reported in this study due to the descriptive nature of the study, the use of categorical data, and low statistical power.

Return to home page