Biochemistry
Unit
Maryellen
Carey
Unit Overview
The study of Biology can be defined as the study of all life. It is one of the sciences that can be easily related to our lives as human beings and the relationships we have with the environment and species surrounding us. This relationship can be established in a variety of creative ways and not just by rote memorization of meaningless facts. This unit is designed to help educators stray from the lecture format of the science classroom to one that is more meaningful, interesting and that can be directly applied to the lives of the students.
Biochemistry is an important topic in the Biology curriculum. An understanding of the chemical composition of living things leads to a better understanding of the interdependency between all of the species of the living world – the underlying theme of all of biology. It helps describe and explain the behaviors that have developed in the human species (and other species), and serves as introductory material for the human physiology aspect to the biology curriculum. The macromolecules that will be discussed and explored in this unit are proteins, lipids and carbohydrates. Enzymes will also be covered in this unit being that they are one of the most important ingredients in the successful functioning of the human body.
This unit is designed for a ninth or tenth grade high school biology classroom. It has been created to meet the needs of students beginning their high school science educations. It should be implemented around the second or third month of instruction and will last approximately fourteen days of forty-minute periods. Since this subject can be easily related to the subjects of health and chemistry, they should be used to help students apply their new knowledge in several areas. This unit will encompass all of the concepts covered in the New York State Standards listed below.
New York State Living Environment
Key Idea 1:
Living things are both similar to and different from each other and from nonliving things.
PERFORMANCE INDICATOR 1.2
Describe and explain the structures and functions of the human body at different organizational levels (e.g., systems, tissues, cells, organelles).
Organisms inherit genetic information in a variety of ways that result in continuity of structure and function between parents and offspring.
PERFORMANCE INDICATOR 2.1
Explain how the structure and replication of genetic material result in offspring that resemble their parents.
Organisms maintain a dynamic equilibrium that sustains life.
PERFORMANCE INDICATOR 5.1
Explain the basic biochemical processes in living organisms and their importance in maintaining dynamic equilibrium.
Explain disease as a failure of homeostasis.
Upon completion of this unit, the learner will be able to
This unit will open by addressing the importance of knowing and understanding biological macromolecules. It will begin by showing the students the direct correlation between the information contained within the unit and their lives. This will serve to create interest among the biology students and to remind them of the impact their dietary choices have on their lives. The class, working as groups will come up with a food pyramid from their memory which they will compare to the most recent one developed by the USDA. As the dietary trends have changed, not all students will have come up with the correct pyramid. This activity will bring their misconceptions to light in order for the educator to address and correct them throughout the unit. Each group will be assigned a macromolecule to present to the class. This discovery learning exercise will create a sense of responsibility for their learning and the learning of their classmates. After they have researched the molecule, they will give examples of where this molecule might be found in their body. This brings their knowledge of macromolecules to an understanding level. The class will complete a chart and discuss the phrase, "you are what you eat". This discussion will serve to synthesize all of the information presented and discovered in this unit. After bringing all of the information together, the students should then be able to explain why nutritional research is so important to the health of human beings.
Day 3
Information dealing with the difference between organic and inorganic molecules will be presented to the students on this day of the unit. From previous knowledge, the students should be able to list a couple of the materials that make up their bodies. Upon discussing their list, students should learn new information from their peers, adding to the cooperative atmosphere of the classroom. The educator will then give concrete information by directly teaching the differences between organic and inorganic molecules. This will be done in this manner to eliminate confusion and anxiety due to the chemical and structural information. To bring their level of understanding to an analytical level, the students will then differentiate between inorganic and organic molecules by categorize a list. The lesson will end by having the students acknowledge the materials that make up human bodies. They will recognize that their diet needs to include food from organic and inorganic sources in order for them to survive.
Days 4 & 5
Days four and five will cover the carbohydrate section of the unit. The anticipatory set serves two purposes: to get the students interested in the content and to provide a real life example to help students remember the content and/or to reach those students who learn by doing. The students should then relate their findings from the small-scale experiment in order to create a definition for the word, "saccharide". By tasting the actual sugar in the bread, it will increase the likelihood that the students will remember that carbohydrates are sugars. Direct instruction will follow to introduce the molecule and its chemical make up and structure. This will help to reduce confusion and anxiety. By breaking up into pairs and researching a molecule, the students will feel a sense of ownership and responsibility for their learning. It also will provide a chance for some peer learning to take place in the classroom. By drawing the molecule, students will be more apt to remember the structure because of the visual and tactile stimulation. The class will then differentiate between all of the structures drawn. This will be accomplished through an indirect guided question discussion. This will act to stimulate them to discover differences, but to keep their thinking on the right track. The class should be working together on these discoveries, adding to the camaraderie felt among the students. At this point, students will swap molecules and name their new example. By doing so, the students will be given a chance to review and personalize the knowledge they gained throughout this lesson. In addition, they will be asked to use a food guide to look up food sources for their new example. This will give them a chance to apply the content by using a tool that will be available to them for the rest of their lives. The last portion of the lesson – the specific uses of carbohydrates in the body – will be given to them through direct instruction. This is designed to get a lot of information across in a little amount of time.
Days 6 & 7
The nest two days will be devoted to lipids.
The first activity will be to draw a lipid. By doing so, the students will
have a picture in their mind of this class of macromolecules while it is
being presented. Direct instruction on the types of lipids found in the
body will follow this activity. The Internet will be used to demonstrate
specific examples, allowing the students to "see" and relate all of the
structures to each other. Students will then break up into groups and research
the functions of lipids in the body. In this activity, the students should
correlate the structures of the different lipids to their different functions.
This brings their level of learning from a knowledge level to comprehension.
A class chart will then be made, allowing some peer learning to take place
in the classroom. An indirect instruction period in the lesson will follow
discussing specific functions of lipids – the plasma membrane and cholesterol.
This period will clear up any misconceptions seen throughout the previous
exercise. After this has been completed, an article on cholesterol will
be handed out to the students. This article will act as a conversation
and debate piece on whether cholesterol is good for the human body or not.
Students should have an understanding of cholesterol at the end of the
discussion, and should be able to justify the existence of cholesterol
in their diet. The students should be operating on an evaluation level
of understanding after this exercise. Students should now take out their
lipid drawings from the start of the lesson. At this point, the students
should know enough about lipids to label their drawings properly.
Days 8 & 9
The next two days of this unit will focus on proteins. Since this is the last group of macromolecules covered in this unit, this lesson will begin with a review of the chemical composition of the other macromolecules covered. This review will serve as a baseline for integrating the new protein information with the previous knowledge learned in this unit. After each individual student has finished his or her chart, the students will come together and brainstorm to come up with different food sources of proteins from previous knowledge. This will be lead in an indirect fashion, allowing the students to feel in control of their learning pace. Using the Internet as a visual, the educator will then provide the class with different examples of proteins found in the body. Since there are so many, the class should realize that most of the organic materials in the human body are proteins, bringing their level of understanding from knowledge to comprehension. The students, through an indirect question/answer period, will realize the various functions of proteins. As a result of the complexity and depth of the material, direct instruction on the chemical structure and composition will follow this demonstration. This will provide a structured and logical explanation for the material that will reduce stress and frustration among the students. The class will then break up into groups of four for a cooperative learning exercise. Each student will have to draw and label one of the twenty amino acids covered in the direct instruction period of the lesson. An activity, lead by the instructor will then follow once all students have completed their drawing. The educator will call out directions that will require all of the groups to work together to make preliminary products. The last task of this exercise will require the whole class to work together to create a final product. This exercise is designed to create positive relationships between the group members and other members of the class. It also acts to reinforce the material learned in the direct instruction period of this lesson and to bring it to a synthesis level of understanding.
Day 10 & 11
Enzymes will be covered in the next lesson of this unit. They are extremely important in the subject of biochemistry and, therefore, a whole lesson will be devoted to their function in the human body. The lesson will begin with a brief, indirect, introduction to enzymes. Students will be asked questions like: "Why is a fever so hurtful to your body?"; "What happens to an egg – which is all protein – when it is cooked?" and, "What is the difference between creating a fire using just sticks and a flame and using all of the aforementioned with started fluid?". They will determine the meaning s of the words catalyst and denaturing through this inductive questioning. Instruction will follow that defines enzymes and introduces the "induced fit model" that describes their way of functioning. This model can be confusing to some students so direct instruction with the use of computer simulations, for visual learners, will be used for this part of the lesson. The students will then complete a lab exercise representing discovery learning. Through this exercise, they will be shown what exactly a catalyst does to a reaction. This lab exercise will be done in groups, but the students will be responsible for their own learning by completing selected response questions on the material. The lab will act to help students synthesize all of the information learned through the indirect and direct instructional parts of the lesson.
Days 12, 13 & 14
Student pairs will have chosen their topic
for the culminating activity for this by day 10. On day 11, they will be
given the assignment and rubric for the presentation. On day 12, independent
research will take place for each pair of students. They should work to
meet all expectations for the assignment. These two days of working have
been set aside for the educator to answer any questions students may have
concerning the project and to guide them if they are struggling with getting
all of the required content.
Assessment Techniques
There will be many opportunities to assess the student’s learning on the topic of biochemistry. Informal assessments, in the form of communication through questions and conversation and observations of students as they work individually or in groups, will be used daily. These will occur frequently, in each lesson, to ensure that all students are assessed in a non-threatening, stress-free environment.
Students learn and test best in different ways. For this reason, many types of teaching styles and assessments have been built into this unit. By doing so, all learning and testing styles will be accommodated for, increasing the likeliness that each student will reach and surpass the lesson targets and unit goals. All assessments, regardless of formality or style, should be as valid and reliable as possible. Included in this unit paper is a rubric to address this issue and the issue of authentic assessment.
As this unit is presented, each student will be required to take daily notes. Since this unit is presented in the beginning months of the school year, each student’s notebook will be checked on a weekly basis. Note taking can be a hard skill to grasp and this will ensure that all students are "getting" the content and developing this skill adequately. Each student at the beginning of the year will be given a format guide to taking notes and each lesson will provide the students with the required notes via overhead projector or white/black board. The notebooks will be graded at the end of each beginning unit on these attributes.
The students will begin the lesson for days 1 and 2 by creating their own food pyramid from memory and compromising, as a class, to creating a master drawing. Successful students will find ease in compromising with other classmates. Students who cannot do so do not yet feel comfortable and confident in their peers. These feelings should subside as more group activities are completed throughout the year. Students should now compare their food pyramid with the one presented by the educator. The differences, if there are any, should be apparent to the students. Students should be volunteering information or asking questions concerning the pyramid. Participation here will let the educator know who understands, or who is even interested, in the material at hand. Each group will then be given a molecule to research. The educator will walk around the room as the students work in groups, and observe their interactions. Perhaps the students who are introverted will demonstrate their understanding better in this small group type setting. The educator should be looking for this type of participation. A class chart will be created from the information gained from working in cooperative groups. This provides the educator with concrete evidence that the students understood their findings. The class will now label the food pyramid together. Students who understand the groups will call out the labels of each section with their peers. Even introverted students may participate in this exercise because of the insignificance of their voice due to the large volume of overall noise. The lesson will end with a class discussion. Again, participation and disposition will demonstrate the level of learning to the educator.
The second lesson of this unit covers the differences between organic and inorganic molecules. Again, students will work in groups to brainstorm the materials that make up their bodies. Students should be working together efficiently and effectively. A master list will be created on the overhead projector, concretely proving to the educator that each group was successful at coming up with some ideas. The students will now take notes on inorganic and organic molecules. Students should be active in their learning by taking notes, asking questions, participating by offering information and by paying attention. Each student will then classify the master list items, on their own, as being inorganic or organic. Students who understand the differences between the two molecules will be working diligently and at a steady pace. The educator should walk around the classroom at this point, looking for concrete examples that each student understands the material. The students will now work on another list in their respective groups. If any student is struggling with the material, the group should be able to clear up their problems. An effective group should be working together on the assigned material and answering each other’s questions. Their individual work and group work will be handed in to formally assess their level of knowledge.
As the students work in pairs on days 4 and 5, they should be productive and successful in researching their molecules. Students who are struggling with this assignment are either having difficulty with the material, the research sources or with their partner. The educator should walk around the room looking for these discrepancies so that they may be corrected. The pair should draw or create a drawing of their structure to present to the class. The drawing and presentation will serve as concrete evidence that the student pairs understand and can explain the material in their own manner. As the class makes observations between the presented molecules, the educator should be observing the students’ dispositions. A student who does not understand or who is bored with the material might be restless and inattentive. These students should be drawn into the discussion by questioning or by giving an example of something you are explaining using their name or hobby. The next activity will be to have the students swap their unlabeled drawings. The pairs should come up with a label for each drawing they receive. The educator should again walk around and observe the students as they work together.
At this point in the unit, a selected response 15 question quiz will be given to the students. The quiz will include several different styles of selected response, including short answer, multiple choice and matching. This quiz is given at the mid point of the unit to ensure that all students understand the material and that the lesson targets are being reached. It is a formal assessment that should have content validity in order to provide the educator with concrete evidence of learning.
On days 6 and 7, the students will be working in groups for part of the lesson. They will do individual research followed by completing a chart. The educator should be walking around looking for concrete examples of learning and should require all groups to volunteer their findings when organizing the class chart. Evidence of their learning will be seen in their confidence and correctness in offering their group findings. The next activity will be to label their drawings in their groups. The educator should observe each group as they work together to complete the assignment. As the educator leads the class through an indirect question / answer period and a discussion afterwards, he or she should be looking for responses or participation from all students. A student who understood the article assigned will offer suggestions or state his or her personal opinion on the subject. To ensure that all students are "getting it" the educator will ask the students to create an essay justifying the consumption of cholesterol in their diets. This will provide a formal assessment of the lesson.
The last of the three organic macromolecules will be presented on days 8 and 9. Students will be required to fill in a chart that reviews the material they have learned thus far. A successful student will do this with ease and will hand it in with all answers correct. This will act as a formal assessment of how the students are doing in synthesizing all of the material of the lesson. The class will then brainstorm and come up with a few different food sources of proteins. This will help the educator assess the previous knowledge the class has on the topic of proteins and will allow her or him to adjust the pace of learning. Students who have a good background will participate by calling out food sources and other relevant material. This participation should continue throughout the next two sections of this lesson -- the indirect and direct instruction periods. At this time, students will break up into groups of four. They each will be assigned an amino acid to draw. The educator should walk around and observe each student as he or she draws the molecule. They have been placed into groups for support and to complete a larger task at the end of this exercise. Students who understand the material will work with ease in creating their own molecule and will be seen helping other group members with their drawings. As this exercise progresses, the groups should work together to complete a series of tasks. A successful group will work together effectively and will have each member participating in completing the tasks. The educator should observe the groups as they proceed with the activity. At the finish of this lesson all students will be required to complete the chart from the beginning of class. (The educator should have corrected this chart the previous day). They should correct any mistakes and add the last class to the chart at this point. This will be handed in for physical evidence of learning.
The next day deals with enzymes. Students who understand the path of indirect instruction will ask and answer questions that directly deal with the information. Again, the educator should try to communicate with all students at this point and should observe dispositions in order to adjust their instruction. The lab exercise will provide the educator with physical evidence for learning as well as time to interact individually with each student. Students who understand the content will be working at a steady pace, be attentive to details and will be helping other students who might be struggling. The educator should have a rubric to correct the lab exercise, if needed, to ensure that all students are assessed accurately and unbiased.
This unit will conclude with a presentation on diseases caused by indulgence or lack of consumption of certain foods. This topic brings everything presented in the unit together and provides the students with a chance to apply it directly to their world. This presentation will be assessed using a rubric to ensure reliability in grading. By giving it to the students beforehand, it also will give the students a chance to earn their own grade, increasing their sense of responsibility for their own learning. The last two days of class, students should be working together to complete the research ad plan the presentation. Successful students will be using the rubric as a guideline and will ask questions of the educator, if needed.
Authentic Assessment Instrument
The students, in pairs, will choose a
disease from a list of several diseases that result from nutritional deficiencies
or indulgences. They will research this disease and give an 8 to 10 minute
presentation to the rest of the class. This presentation will serve as
a culminating assessment for this unit. The expectations of the presentation
are as follows:
The students will be given a rubric to guide the organization and content of their presentations. By seeing the expectations and the rubric of the presentation, students will become more responsible for their learning. The result will be a sense of ownership for the grade that each student receives.
The rubric will serve to ensure the reliability
of the grading system – it will allow the educator to accurately rate each
presentation without bias. As each pair of students present their disease,
the educator will use a blank rubric for grading purposes. Additional comments
will be provided on the rubric, as will each section grade ad the total
grade.
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Lesson Plan 1 Subject: Biology
Duration: 2 periods Grade: 9 /10
Topic: Introduction / Overview of Organic Macromolecules
Lesson Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson,
Anticipatory Set:
Informal assessment – Observations will be made as each student works individually and as a group member. In addition, communication between educator and student will help assess the level of knowledge. The group presentations will also assess understanding.
Formal assessment -- Students will complete a worksheet for homework. The worksheet will include a list of foods for the students to categorize into a protein, carbohydrate or lipid group. They will list a possible location or function of each macromolecule in the body.
Comments for change:
Lesson Plan 2 Subject: Biology
Duration: 1 period Grade: 9 /10
Topic: Organic vs. Inorganic Molecules
Lesson Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson,
Anticipatory set:
Informal – Observations will be made as each individual student contributes to the small group exercises. Also, personal communication and class communication will be used as means of measuring level of understanding.
Formal – Each member of each group will hand in the categorized list of inorganic and organic molecules.
Comments for change:
Lesson Plan 3 Subject: Biology
Duration: 2 periods Grade: 9 /10
Topic: Carbohydrates
Lesson Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson,
Anticipatory set:
Informally – The students will be assessed informally through observation while working as pairs. Personal communication (one on one or in class discussion) will also help to assess the student’s level of understanding.
Formally – The students will hand in their assignment for the day -- the second and third molecule swaps.
Comments for change:
Lesson Plan 4 Subject: Biology
Duration: 2 periods Grade: 9 /10
Topic: Lipids
Lesson Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson,
Anticipatory set:
Closure:
Informally – the students will be informally assessed through all of their group work and class discussion participation. This will be done through communication (both personally and as a group) and observation.
Formally – Each group will have to come up with a label for their drawing and a set of four drawings properly placed together. This will serve as a product formal assessment. In addition, each student will be required to write a brief reaction to the article read in class. This will be an essay assessment of their level of understanding.
Comments for change:
Lesson Plan 5 Subject: Biology
Duration: 2 periods Grade: 9 /10
Topic: Proteins
Lesson Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson,
Review:
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* Answers will vary
They should pretend that they are biochemists and determine the class of organic or inorganic compounds to which each chemical make up belongs. They should leave the last chemical class and column blank – these two columns will be used at the end of the lesson. The answers they should indicate at this point are given in red.
Informally – The educator will informally assess the students through oral communication and observation. Each student should be individually assessed and assessed as a working part of their group.
Formally – Each student will be assessed on the chart they completed during the lesson. They will also be individually assessed on the amino acid they create and their group peptide chains.
Comments for change:
Accompanying Materials
Web Sites
1. MSN
Encarta - Carbohydrate
http://encarta.msn.com/find/Concise.asp?ti=06778000
2. www.mpcfaculty.net/mark_bishop/carbohydrates
4. Biological
Functions of Proteins - Live!
http://looksmart.com/cgibin/go/adname=searchans:homewrk;adfield=lslive;ref=1/live.looksmart.com/cgi-bin/view_a_question.cgi?qptr=qa_2000-07-14.dat:000498465
5. Protein Chemistry & GIF Animations
http://www2.ucsc.edu/people/straycat
6. www.umass.edu/microbiv/chime/hemoglob
9. www.cnn.com/HEALTH/diet.fitness/9910/11/chat.peeke
http://www.nyu.edu/pages/mathmol/library/life/life.html
11. Virtual Children's Hospital – Lowering Cholesterol
http://www.vh.org/Patients/IHB/FamilyPractice/AFP/April1995/Cholesterol.html
http://encarta.msn.com/find/Concise.asp?ti=03C1A000
TAKEN FROM ENCARTA REFERENCE – www.encarta.msn.com
| Fat
Content of Oils and Shortenings
Grams of fatty acids/100g Saturated Monounsaturated Polyunsaturated Butter
Coconut oil
Corn oil 13
Cottonseed oil
Groundnut oil
Lard
Margarine, hard
Margarine, polyunsaturated
Margarine, soft 25 31 22
Olive oil
Palm oil
Rapeseed oil
Safflower oil
Soybean oil 15
Sunflower oil
The fatty acids in food
products are divided into three categories based on their chemical composition.
In a saturated fat molecule, every carbon atom bonds with two hydrogen
atoms. In a monounsaturated fat molecule, one pair of hydrogen atoms is
missing. In a polyunsaturated fat molecule, more than one pair of hydrogen
atoms is missing. Foods with large amounts of saturated fats tend to raise
cholesterol levels in humans, while foods with unsaturated fat tend to
lower cholesterol levels.
© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. |
TAKEN FROM: http://www.vh.org/Patients/IHB/FamilyPractice/AFP/April1995/Cholesterol.html
Iowa Health Book: Family Practice
Lowering Your Cholesterol Level
American Academy of Family Physicians
Peer Review Status: Externally
Peer Reviewed by the American Academy of Family Physicians
Creation Date: April 1995
Last Revision Date: April
1995
What is cholesterol?
Cholesterol is a type of fat made by your liver. Cholesterol is also contained in certain foods that you eat, such as eggs, meat and dairy products. When you eat these foods often, the amount of cholesterol in your blood is increased. Foods high in saturated fat can also raise the amount of cholesterol in your blood, because your liver turns saturated fat into cholesterol.
Cholesterol travels through the blood in different types of packages called lipoproteins. The low-density lipoprotein (LDL) delivers cholesterol to the body. The high-density lipoprotein (HDL) removes cholesterol from the blood stream.
How can a high cholesterol level hurt my health?
Too much cholesterol in your blood can raise your risk of a heart attack or a stroke. Extra cholesterol may be stored in your arteries (large blood vessels) and cause them to become narrow. The amount of cholesterol in an artery wall may be so large that the artery becomes blocked and blood can't flow through it. If an artery that supplies blood to your heart becomes blocked, you may have a heart attack. If an artery that supplies blood to your brain becomes blocked, you may have a stroke.
When should I begin having my cholesterol level checked?
In general, you should start having your cholesterol level checked when you are about 20 years old. After that, you should have your cholesterol checked at least once every five years.
Depending on what your cholesterol level is and whether you have other risk factors for heart disease, you may need to have your cholesterol checked more often. Talk to your family doctor about how often you need to be tested.
Children as young as two years old should have their cholesterol checked if a close relative, such as a grandparent, had heart disease before age 55, or if a close relative has high cholesterol (a level of 240 or above).
What should my cholesterol level be?
The best total cholesterol level is under 200. A level between 200 and 239 means you have some risk for heart attack or stroke. A cholesterol level of 240 or more means that you have an increased risk for heart disease.
Lipoprotein levels (HDL and LDL) are also important. Your doctor may want to find out what your HDL and LDL levels are if you have a family history of heart disease before age 50 or if you have a high cholesterol level. If your total cholesterol level is high because of a high LDL level, you may have a higher risk for heart disease or stroke. If your total level is high only because of a high HDL level, you probably do not have an increased risk of heart disease.
An LDL cholesterol level of less than 130 is best. An LDL level of 160 or higher means you have an increased risk for heart disease. An HDL cholesterol level of less than 35 puts you at higher risk for heart disease, while an HDL level of 60 or above reduces your risk.
What can I do to lower my cholesterol level?
Eating healthy food can help lower your LDL cholesterol level, and it may protect you from the damaging effects of cholesterol. You can raise your HDL cholesterol level by exercising, quitting smoking (if you smoke) and losing weight (if you're overweight).
Eating healthy foods usually lowers cholesterol levels. Here are some tips on eating smart:
If eating healthy, exercising and making
other changes in your life (such as stopping smoking) do not lower your
cholesterol level after about six months, your doctor may want to discuss
using medicine to lower your cholesterol level. This may be a lifelong
treatment, so it should be thought about only if healthy habits do not
work.
This information provides a general overview on lowering cholesterol levels and may not apply to everyone. To find out if this information applies to you and to get more information on this subject, talk to your family doctor.
This handout is provided to you by your family doctor and the American Academy of Family Physicians. It is adapted from "Cholesterol: What You Can Do to Lower Your Level," a brochure in the AAFP patient education brochure series, Health Notes from Your Family Doctor.
AMINO ACID STRUCTURE
TABLE FOR LESSON PLAN 5
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* Answers will vary
Bibliography
Garnsey, W. (1996) N & N Science Series: Biology. Middletown, NY: N & N Publishing Company
Campbell, M. (1995). Biochemistry, 2nd edition. New York: Saunders College Publishing.
Marieb, E. (1995). Human Anatomy and Physiology, 3rd edition. Reading, Massachusetts: The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company.
Campbell, N. (1993). Biology, 3rd edition. Reading, Massachusetts: The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company.
Borich, G. (1992). Effective Teaching Methods, 4th edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Merrill / Prentice Hall.
Rolfes, S & Whitney, E. (1993). Understanding Nutrition, 7th edition. St. Paul, Minneapolis: West Publishing Company.
Stiggens, R. (2001). Student – Involved Classroom
Assessment, 3rd edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Merrill
/ Prentice Hall.
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