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Chapter 4: Harnessing the Power of Social/Indirect Learning

From Transformative Classroom Management. By John Shindler. ©2008

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In this Chapter:

• Examining the Social Learning Model
• Principle 1: Students learn lessons indirectly
• Principle 2: Group contingency
• Principle 3: Peer influence
• Principle 4: Instructional applications
• Principle 5: Students influence the teacher
• Principle 6: Making tomorrow better as a result of what is done today

The Social Learning Theory implies, among other things, that we can learn from situations by making inferences from what we observe (what happens to others) without having to be directly involved (Solomon & Perkins, 1998). For example, consider the following two situations below.

1. As we drive down the freeway we observe a car on the side of the road that has been pulled over by the highway patrol. We make the decision to slow down as we deduce that this same fate could happen to us.

2. We observe Person A act in a way that impresses Person B (whose respect and admiration we desire). We note that Person B responds positively when Person A talks about sports. The next time we interact with Person B, we find opportunities to bring up the topic of sports.

These two situations are examples of the principle of social or indirect learning. Lessons were learned indirectly through observation rather than through direct experience. We can see this same principle being demonstrated in the classroom. In fact, it is happening almost continuously. Most of what we learn about what is appropriate or what should be avoided is learned indirectly. For example, at some point in our time in school we have likely experienced being in a classroom situation in which a fellow student made a remark or answered a question that a teacher reacted to in a very publicly critical manner. Recall your thought process and subsequent behavior at the time. Along with most every student in the class, your reaction was likely to think something to the effect, “I am not going to let that happen to me.” And as a result, you may have determined that it was not worth the risk of volunteering ideas in the class, and to be more careful about how you responded in the future. Whatever the lesson that you took away from the incident, it is likely that you made a judgment that you used to guide your future behavior. The teacher did not directly criticize your answer, but your response to the event may have been nearly as profound as if it had happened to you personally. This event illustrates the social learning mechanism in action.

Chapter Reflection 4-a: As you reflect on your experience as a student. Can you recall situations in which you changed your behavior as a result of something that you observed happening to someone else, but did not happen to you directly?

Figure 4.1 Social Learning Theoretical Model

The following diagram depicts the

dynamics in a social learning situation (Bandura, 1971)

Teacher (T)

The interaction described in the example of the critical remark above characterizes a dynamic that could be described as (T) Teacher –> (S) Student interaction with an audience of others (O). As we examine all of the potential dynamics in Figure 4.1 a series of principles emerge. In this chapter, we will explore some of the classroom implications of each of these principles.

1. Principle One: The students as a collective learn lessons indirectly from the interactions between the teacher and particular students. Other students observe what happens to one student and can then make decisions related to how to act in the future based on what they observed. Among other things, these lessons lead to the students’ judgments about the level of trust they have in the teacher.

This first principle relates to the students’ perception of both “who we are” (the teacher--recall Chapter 3) and our level of reliability in the role of teacher. It includes the students’ perceptions of our level of consistency and the appearance of any differential treatment of students. Some of the ways our reliability is manifested include the following:

• Fairness. It is rare to find a group of students who are not highly concerned (if not obsessed) with fairness. A lack of consistency on the part of the teacher often leads to being characterized as lacking fairness. Being deliberately consistent is a good idea. This sounds easy, but it can be a significant challenge.

• Favorites. Teachers may not have favorite students, but if students perceive treatment of students as differential, they may feel hurt. This hurt can result in a whole set of potential, covert problems, including decreased effort, passive-aggressiveness, excessive questioning of the teacher’s authority, and/or a general loss of faith in the teacher.

Chapter Reflection 4-b: Recall a situation in which you felt that a teacher had “favorites.” What information did you use to infer that this was the case? Did the teacher ever say directly that these students were his/her favorites? If not, what led you to the conclusion that they did?

• Integrity of the social contract (or rules, boundaries, expectations, code of conduct, etc.). The level of integrity of our social contract (as we will examine in detail in Chapters 9, 10 and 11) will be dependent on the reliability with which we apply implicitly or explicitly the operative principles of the class. For example, if we ask for 100% attention, yet regularly talk when others are talking, we make the statement that our expectation is not genuine (see Chapter 6). Or if we give consequences in some cases and not others, we send the message that the collectively-developed contract is less important than our subjective interests.

• Your commitment. Consistent and reliable behavior sends the message that you believe in that which has been agreed. Consequently, it is likely that over time you will see a reflection of your level of commitment in your students. If respect is demonstrated for the operating principals of the class, students will come to behave with respect as well. If not, it will show in your actions, and you should not be surprised or disappointed when you do not see your students living up to the agreed-upon expectations.

Taken together, these elements build the level of trust in the room. When students perceive their teacher treating each of them with the same level of regard, being equitable and fair, and being true to the tenets of the social contract, they learn to trust not only the teacher but the operating principles of the class. This trust leads to a sense of emotional safety and security. Without this foundation, very little of what could be considered transformational (i.e., community, success psychology, responsibility) will be possible.

Chapter Reflection 4-c: Recall a class in which you felt there was a great deal of inconsistency, and perceived differential treatment. How did it make you feel? Did you feel emotionally safe? How did you and the other students compensate for the teacher’s inconsistency and the feelings that it engendered within you?

Principle Two: When a whole group contingency is imminent, individual students will feel an incentive (i.e., peer pressure) to act in a manner that benefits the collective. If all members of a group are put in a position in which something needs to be done (e.g., perform a task, exhibit a behavior, refrain from a behavior) or the entire group will be unable to meet its goal, each member will feel the weight of the whole as they consider their actions.

One typical example of the use of this principle in the classroom is when a teacher says to the class, “Everyone needs to clean up their desks before anyone can go.” In this situation, the pressure each individual student feels as a result of this arrangement is likely more related to the desires and expectations of their classmates than those of the teacher. The teacher has essentially used the power of the social mechanism--in this case, what is referred to as “peer pressure”-- to motivate individual students to behave in a collectively beneficial manner.

Other examples of the deliberate use of peer pressure include:

1. When the teacher looks for “ready groups” or groups that are demonstrating by their behavior that they are ready, given a prescribed characterization of ready clarified at an earlier time.
2. When the teacher stops and waits for individual students to listen and/or get on task. In this case, the message is that the group is having to wait for an individual or two, and so those individuals need to attend not only because that is the expectation, but because the progress of the entire group is contingent upon their actions.

These types of consequences can have a great deal of power and can be carried out relatively efficiently. As a result, they are attractive for a lot of reasons, and we will revisit them in a more practical context in Chapter 12, in our discussion of technical management. But for now, let’s consider when they are or are not helping us get the kinds of long-term positive development we want.

Chapter Refection 4-d: Recall teachers you have seen who have used a great deal of peer pressure and group contingency to motivate the students in their classes. Was it effective? Why or why not? How did it make you feel?

When are group contingencies a good idea?

1. When the stakes are small. A small loss of time will not have a lasting cost, but anything that affects grades, friendships, dignities, material or learning outcomes should be avoided.
2. When it helps make an expectation more concrete, and leads to more understanding and self-responsible behavior in the future. In other words, it is a good practice if you recognize that you need to use it increasingly less often over time.

When are group contingencies not such a good idea?

1. When they involve the same student repeatedly. When it is one student (or small portion of the students) causing the group to repeatedly pay a price, this can lead to that student becoming resented, marginalized and/or having negative identity patterns encouraged.
2. When it is clearly not working to motivate better behavior, or has become a crutch used by the teacher to obtain the desired behavior. If the students do not see and agree to the need for the behavior, it will be just a gimmick at best, and at worst it will lead to resentment toward the teacher and/or dependency or a threat condition to obtain responsible behavior.
3. When the majority of students feel that they are being coerced rather than challenged. This again can lead to resentment toward the teacher.

Chapter Reflection 4-e: Consider the costs associated with giving up some amount of group cohesion and/or the quality of your relationships with your student for higher levels of efficiency. This is not always the result, when we use group contingencies, but it can be. When would you make this trade? How much sense of comfort would you trade for more efficiency and a feeling of accountability? Reflect on your answer to this question again when we examine the idea of what promotes a success psychology in a classroom in Chapter 8.

Principle Three: Peer influences. 1) For some students peers may be a more significant source of influence than the teacher. For many students, impressing peers may represent a larger need than meeting the expectations of the teacher, especially if the student has an unmet need for love/belonging. 2) We need to encourage our popular and influential students to support group goals. If the strong-personality students take on a sense of entitlement, or decide to work against the goals of the group, it will create a political problem that can have a divisive affect.

You may have one or more students that seem to be fixated on peers as their reference group, and seem much less concerned about your expectations for their behavior. This need for peer approval seems to be strongest in the middle school years. For some teachers this can even lead to an avoidance of students of this age. But while you cannot significantly change their needs or alter their cognitive developmental patterns, you can creatively work with the situation to the benefit of everyone.

First, the teacher needs to stop taking offense at what appears to be a lack of respect for adults--you in this case. The teacher should continue to model respect and expect it from all of their students however these students, absorbed with their worth in the eyes of others, seem not likely to respond to overt demands for respect. Remember, they are the children, and we are the adults.

Second, the teacher needs to make a genuine connection with the student. We need to send the message to these students that they are a liked, needed and believed in. If we do, the students will have the potential to be a positive (while albeit unpredictable) force in the class; if not, they are almost certainly going to be working against us.

Third, the teacher needs to help this student contribute. If the student is put in situations in which they are able to contribute to the welfare of others, they will be in a better position to meet the need for belonging and self-efficacy as well as meet the teacher’s need for a student who is responsible. For instance, you might give them small leadership roles, such as passing out papers, or setting up an activity. And when they do, you need to make it clear to them that you appreciate what they are doing for the “good of the class.” Chapter 8 may also give you ideas for the kinds of feedback you will want to give this student.

Chapter Reflection 4-f: What is your first instinct with a student that seems to be disinterested in meeting your expectations, but is very attuned to what others in the class think? Is it to teach him/her a lesson by being emotionally distant in return? Or to be passive-aggressive toward him/her until they change their ways? What is the likely result of these responses? In your judgment, do they lead to things getting better of worse?

In addition to students who are heavily influenced by their peers, there will be students who have strong personalities, who will have a powerful influence over the behavior of the rest of the members of the class. These students may or may not be aware of the power that they have on others. But we need to recognize that they do, and as a result, steer this influence to the advantage of the whole class.

For many of these students, power comes from popularity and their place at the top of the social hierarchy. For others, it comes from being a large and dynamic personality. For others, it comes from having persuasive skills and charisma beyond their years, and thus the ability to influence the opinions and decisions of the group. This power need not be manifested negatively for it to matter to the teacher as the leader in the class. We need to let this student know early and often that we respect that they do have this influence, and are not trying to “put them in their place,” but we do need the influence of each member of the class to support the good of the whole.

Each of us will find her or himself in a different situation, and therefore our relationships with these types of students will all be unique. But there are a few common ingredients that will help support these influential students being positive ingredients in the class as opposed to our political opponents. To support these ingredients, it will be useful to take the following steps:

1. Let the students know that you like and respect them and what they can do, and do not see them as a threat or competition. But they need to know that they have influence. You know it. They know it. So with that influence comes some responsibility.

2. Help the student recognize how to be a positive leader in the class. It may help to point out cases in which you have already seen them do things that demonstrated positive leadership. Being concrete will make the idea of their position of responsibility less threatening if it is new to them. They may feel overwhelmed or put upon by the idea. So let them know that they do not have to anything special. They just have to do their best to think about how their actions will affect the group.

3. Remember that they are still kids--even if they are the center on the basketball team, or the prom queen, or if their father is the mayor. And for some, this student will bring back memories of students who oppressed us, intimidated us, looked down on us, or those that we felt beneath when we were in school. Do not blame the student or yourself for having these feelings. Simply recognize that you can be a leader today, and let the past go.

4. Send the clear message to students that there is no place for entitlement in the class--that anyone who contributes should be recognized and appreciated. It is especially important to recognize the contributions of the less-visible students, and those students who are turning the corner toward making a contribution to the class and taking on a more positive self-concept. However, it is fine to let the influential student know in a publicly supportive manner that the members of the class are appreciative that they are using their gifts for service and not ego gratification.

5. Help the student recognize that it feels better to be a positive leader than someone who has to play a game of defending their sense of entitlement. It may not be what popular culture is telling them, but when they look inside, they will see that it feels a lot better.

Chapter Reflection 4-g: Recall from your days as a student how the popular students acted. How would you characterize it? Were they leaders or did they project a sense of entitlement? What did the teachers in the school do to encourage their behavior in ether of these directions?

Principle Four: 1 x 1 can sometimes equal 30. Use the Social Learning Mechanism to your advantage in your instruction. Model skills, and use indirect learning dynamics in discussions, questioning, and feedback.

The Power of Positive Recognitions

When we give feedback to students privately, we deliver information to one student. When we give feedback to a student publicly, we have delivered indirect information to the whole class. Often we as teachers circulate in a room during an exercise and give feedback to one student or group of students at a time. The effect is that we get better informed and more sophisticated in our understanding of the activity. However, our increased level of understanding may offer little benefit to others if it only stays in our minds. If we take the opportunity to make concrete and specific positive recognitions of student work that models high quality or innovative performance, we teach the whole class a very concrete lesson (see also building expectations using positive recognitions in Chapter 5). For example, let us say that we have an expectation that we want students to outline their ideas before they begin writing. If we observe a student who is taking great care to do just that at the start of the process, we may take the opportunity to recognize the “actions” of the student publically. For instance standing next to the student and using a full class volume, we could state, “I see students taking great care in their planning before they start writing.” We do not need to praise or make the recognition personal (in fact this is counterproductive, as we will discuss in the next chapter). Through the use of these public recognitions we use the concrete actions of students who are meeting expectations and/or modeling high quality or innovative performance as indirect instruction to the class.

Keeping Student Cognitively “On the Hook”

When we ask an individual student a question, we engage one at a time. If we do this on a regular basis, the students learn that they are “off the hook” when we are engaging someone else. No matter what we tell them, we send the message that they are a passive audience until it is their turn. But if we simply alter our strategy somewhat, the dynamics will change dramatically. To achieve a class that is cognitively “on the hook” and engaged in a more active form of learning, we will want to introduce the following ingredients: 1) random accountability, 2) use of process-level questioning, and 3) intellectual defense. For example, after asking one student a question, the teacher could turn to another student and ask, “What process do you think that Student X just used to get that answer? Would you have used that process?” In this situation, if you were the student, would you feel the need to be “on the hook” and engaged cognitively? It is likely you would. Compare this mindset to that in a situation in which your teacher was asking one student after another in a fixed pattern, and just provided right or wrong types of feedback. In terms of effort level, this is an example of a rather simple strategy, but consider the powerful effect it has on a both the learning and classroom management outcomes in the class when the students are cognitively on the hook versus when they are not.

Chapter Reflection 4-h: Recall a situation in which as a student, your teacher went around the room and called on students one at a time in a fixed pattern. What were you thinking about as other students responded? Was it related to the academic material? Did you feel accountable or engaged in the learning process?

Given the significant importance of this area, and the strong relationship between management and instruction, we return to these ideas in more detail in Chapter 13.

Principle Five: Reverse effect – Students also learn what behaviors have an effect on the teacher through indirect observation.

Students in a college-level psychology class once decided to discover how effective they could be at modifying the behavior of a guest instructor. They came up with a plan without giving away what they were doing or letting the instructor in on the experiment. Through the use of either smiling and laughing or frowning and yawning as their forms of reinforcement, they were able to behaviorally modify the instructor’s actions. By the end of the period he had been conditioned to lecture from the far corner of the room with his arms folded.

Chapter Reflection 4-i: Recall a class in which a student or two learned that saying or doing certain things could “push the teacher’s buttons.” What was the response of the rest of the class? What did they consequently do, as a result of what they had observed?

While our students may use less sophisticated tactics, they will learn what and how their behavior affects us. Typically, when we think about cases in which a class as a whole learns something about how the teacher reacts to a particular kind of action, or learns that the teacher’s behavior can be modified with the use of certain kinds of reinforce-ment, we imagine problematic or undesirable situations. For example, we may have been part of a class in which one or more students learned that if they asked questions about their teacher’s personal life, latest vacation, or favorite athletic team, the teacher obliged them by going on about that subject and therefore spend less time on the material related to the course (while the students assumed that this would get them out of having to do all that was planned). Likewise, we have been in a class in which one student learned how to push the teacher’s buttons and get into power struggles and/or upset the teacher. In these cases, students learn that their behavior can modify the teacher’s behavior and thus affect what happens in the whole class. Depending on the goals of the students, this knowledge may be used for a variety of purposes (e.g., demonstrating power, fun, changing the direction of the class, getting sent away, etc.).

If we examine these kinds of cases within the lens of the social learning model, we get a better insight into how to keep them from leading to dysfunction. Keeping the social learning principle in mind is a valuable place to start. If we keep in mind that our reaction is teaching the other students about our probable future reactions, we are apt be much more intentional and thoughtful. For example, if a student asks us a silly, off-track question, we might intentionally ignore it, or respond with a clarifying statement such a as, “We need quality answers right now.” This could be contrasted to the countless poor choices which include engaging the student either positively or negatively, which would have the effect of encouraging more silly answers. Being keenly aware that we are modeling how to respond to the many types of student thoughts and actions is important as well. Would we want our students to talk that way to us or one another? In Chapter 19 we examine how being more aware and intentional about our emotional reactions will help lead to more effective practical reactions.

As our practice progresses upward in the continuum toward ever-increasing levels of health and effectiveness, we will better recognize that the indirect learning that members of the class acquire about one another (including the teacher) can just as easily be used for collective growth as it can for victimization. As we will discuss in detail in Chapter 15 related to conflict, being affected is not a problem if it is processed constructively. In Chapter 18, we will learn how to minimize negativity and reactivity in our thinking, and in Chapter 17, we will examine how to create a classroom environment in which member are looking to contribute to the health of the collective, rather than needing to create the kind of dramas reflective of the examples in the previous paragraph.

Chapter Reflection 4-j: Recall Chapter 3, where we observed the notion that “we teach who we are.” Much of this is modeling social interactions. Choose one teacher that you have observed lately. What are students learning from this teacher’s modeling?

Principle Six: Making tomorrow better as a result of what you do today. Consider the social learning model when taking disciplinary action. Ask yourself, “What indirect learning will result from my present actions?”

When we use the social learning model in our decision-making, it can often help us judge the benefits of any particular practice. What may seem like a good idea for today and/or for one student, may in fact not be so good in the long-term and/or may result in the some undesirable indirect learning for the group. In fact, many strategies that work in the long-term are based in counter-intuitive reasoning, and may even seem undesirable on the surface. Therefore, we might want to ask ourselves the following questions when we consider a strategy, “What are the other students learning as they observe my chosen strategy being implemented?” and “What am I liable to get more of in the future as a result of the social learning that is going to take place?”

Many of the strategies described in the book may seem as though they are somewhat indirect and may involve more long-range focus than those to which you are accustomed. However, many of the strategies that one might find to have an instant impact are shown to have substantial negative side-effects when examined in light of their long-term effects. It is tempting to do “what works” today. Nevertheless, if we are committed to transformative results and not simply convenience, remaining intentional and maintaining a long-range view is essential. Let’s examine a few of the common practices that may have negative long-term consequences and alternatives that better take into account the social learning implications.

Dissolving Dysfunctional Groups. It is tempting to dissolve a group that can’t get along or separate a student who is not on task or is bothering other students. On the surface this makes sense. And it could do a great deal to fix the immediate problem. However, as we consider it from the social learning model, what is being learned by the members of the class? It may very well be the following: 1) if a group cannot get along, the teacher will intervene to solve their problem; 2) anytime I do not like who I am working with, I can act up and be removed from the group; 3) if I do not have the skills or interest to function in a cooperative group, I will be taken out and be able to work on my own. Unintended consequences are: 1) students will be inclined to make less effort to solve their own problems; 2) this behavior is encouraged for those who find themselves in the same situation in the future. While it may still be the quickest intervention at our disposal, we need to be aware of the long-term price. Separating students who have chosen to sit together or who desire to be together when they cannot refrain from talking or horseplay to send the message: “sitting together is a privilege, and as a result of your poor choices, you have lost that privilege” will have a long-term positive effect, because we have reinforced one of our fundamental frames--when you show responsibility you will be given more freedom of choice, and when you show that you are not ready for a particular form of responsibility, you will have to wait until another point in time and we will see if you can do better then.

Negative recognitions, and/or public humiliation. The logic here is: “If I tell you enough times how inadequate you are, or shame you in front of the class, you will stop your behavior.” (See Chapter 6 for better strategies.) Unintended consequences are: 1) depresses the level of motivation and emotional safety in the class; 2) sends an implicit message that the teacher is passive and hostile.

Chapter Reflection 4-k: Recall a situation in which you were deliberately shamed publicly by a teacher. It is likely that you still remember it vividly and can still feel the emotion that you experienced at the time. What effect do you think the teacher intended for it to have? What effect did it have?

Hovering. It is tempting to hover or give excessive attention to those students who are misbehaving. However, what is learned may include: 1) the teacher gives disproportionate attention to the students who are acting like victims, problems, or being irresponsible or lazy; 2) the teacher is conditioned by the behavior of students to react to negative behavior. Unintended consequences are: 1) since it is likely that you will encourage more of the behavior to which you attend, you should therefore expect more of whatever you are attending to; also, you should expect less of that to which you are attending less; 2) the students over whom you are hovering will maintain an external locus of control (related to you) rather than learning to take responsibility for changing their own behavior, thus it will take longer for them to grow out of the problem behavior.

As you progress through the book, you will find that several other common practices have unintended consequences as well. These include the following:

• Bailing out students who act pathetic or helpless (Chapter 14)
• Asking for excuses (Chapter 11)
• Encouraging tattle-tales (Chapter 11)
• Appeasing students with deals and bargains (Chapter 11)
• Giving inactivity as a reward or activity as a punishment (Chapter10)
• Taking an authoritarian (4-Style) approach with the problem student (Chapters 18)
• Use of personal praise (Chapters 6 and 7)
• Use of names on the board or colored card systems (Chapter 20)

Chapter Reflection 4-l: How many of these strategies have you used? Do you still use them? Before reading the explanations for why they have undesirable effects in the coming chapters, predict what those effects might be.

As you examine the various areas of classroom management addressed in this book, you will need to revisit the social learning model often, as it helps bring a more complete perspective to any classroom event. A good majority of events in the classroom take place within a social context. Considering our actions within the perspective of indirect learning can help us be more effective as we navigate the many skills required to be an effective classroom leader. When you see the T-S-O triangular figure appearing in the remaining chapters, it will signal a social learning model reference.

Journal Reflections:

1. Recall an event in your life that resulted in a profound life lesson that you learned indirectly. What implications does this event have for your teaching?

2. Do you feel that most teachers adequately consider what the long-term and indirect/social learning effects of their management strategies will be? Why?

Chapter Activities

1. View the Bandura video and discuss the research.

2. In groups, discuss the implications of the social learning theory. In the last class that you observed or taught, give an example of the indirect learning that you observed. Offer the others in the group one idea for a practice that seems useful, and one that you now recognize to be reflect limited value, given the social learning model implications of each practice?

References

Bandura, A. (1971). Social Learning Theory. New York: General Learning Press.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice-Hall.

Mischel, W (2007) Toward a Cognitive Social Learning Re-conceptualization of Personality. In Building a Science of the Individual, Yuichi Shoda and, Daniel Cervone Editors, Guilford Press.

Nicolini, D, Gherardi, S, & Yanow, D (2003) Knowing in Organizations: A Practice-Based Approach. M. E. Sharpe.

Salomon, G and Perkins, D. (1998) Individual and Social Aspects of Learning
Gavriel Salomon, Review of Research in Education, Vol. 23, 1998 (1998), pp. 1-24