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by JVS
Chapter 2:
Classifying Approaches to Classroom Management and Moving Up the Teaching
Style Continuum
From Transformative Classroom Management. By John
Shindler. ©2008 Wiley Press
Reproduction is
unlawful without permission
In this Chapter:
- Introducing the Teaching Style
Matrix
- Vertical Axis – Function vs.
Dysfunction
- Moving Up the Axis – Examining
the roots of Dysfunction
- Things to Start Doing
- Things to Stop Doing
- Examining the Effects of Our
Thinking
- Horizontal Axis –
Teacher-Centered vs. Student-Centered
- Brief Descriptions of the Four
Management Approaches
- Comparing the Advantages of a
1-Style vs. 2-Style Approach
- Moving up from a 3-Style Approach
Each
teacher has his or her own style of teaching and classroom management. There
are as many styles as there are teachers. Much of the style of any teacher will
come from their own unique personality. However, a great deal of what we might
call our classroom management style comes from our attitudes and pedagogical
choices. In the domain of personality, each of us can find ways to translate
our personal style into an effective teaching demeanor. Yet, in the domain of
choices and attitudes, some styles will be lead to substantially different
outcomes than others (Harris, 1998).
Chapter Reflection
2-a:
How would you characterize your teaching style, and/or the style that you would
most like to have?
In
this chapter, we will examine how the classroom management choices that we make
as well as our orientation to discipline itself will determine the results that
we will achieve. To help support this
examination it will be useful to incorporate a four-quadrant classroom
management style matrix (see Figure 2.1).
Figure 2.1: Four-Quadrant
Matrix of Management Style Orientation and Practice
This Classroom Management Style Orientation Matrix, depicted in Figure 2.1
above, has proven useful as a tool for classifying the management orientations
and strategies used by teachers (Shindler,
Jones, Taylor, Cadenas, 2003, 2004, 2005), and will provide one of the fundamental frameworks for the ideas and
concepts in this book. The matrix is formed by the intersection of two
continuum or axes. The vertical axis of the matrix represents the level of
effectiveness and function of the management practices. The horizontal axis
represents a continuum of theoretical orientation defining each approach or
“Style,” from more student-centered on the left, to more teacher-centered on
the right. The intersection of these two axes produces four distinct teaching style quadrants. It should be noted that
on the level of personality, any personal style could be fit into each of the
four quadrants. However, as well we explore, each of the four styles represented by the quadrants will
produce dramatically different results in practice.
Vertical Axis – Effectiveness
and Functionality
The vertical axis of the matrix is related to
the continuum of effectiveness and function of the management practice. At the
top of the axis are the most effective forms of practice defined by high function,
sound relationships, high levels of motivation, and high productivity. At the
base of the axis are the least effective forms of practice defined by low
function, relationship dysfunction, low motivation and a lack of productivity
(see Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2 Depicting the Defining Qualities
of the Vertical Axis
|
High Function |
·
·
Internal
Locus of Control ·
Environment
defined by Efficiency ·
Emotionally
encouraging ·
High
Levels of Awareness ·
Efficacy |
|
|
Low Function |
·
Accidental
Climate ·
External
Locus of Control ·
Environment
defined by struggle ·
Emotionally
discouraging ·
Low
Levels of Awareness ·
Incompetence |
What contributes to one’s placement on this
effectiveness continuum? When the classroom management performance of teachers
in the field was examined, three factors were found to predict effectiveness
(Shindler, Jones, Taylor, Cadenas 2004). These factors were related the
following three domains:
- Orientation
and Dispositions
- Choices
and Practices
- Thinking
and Assumptions
First,
to be an effective teacher one must have an orientation to teaching that is
defined by a sense of responsibility, and intentionality. Second, effective
management will relate to a great extent on the quality of methods and
strategies that one chooses to incorporate and the effectiveness with which
they apply them. In this chapter, we will examine practices that will lead on a
path up the continuum and others that will leave one mired in the ineffective
realm. Third, we will examine how our attitudes, assumptions, and patterns of
thinking will substantially determine our ability to realize effectiveness and
function. Each of these three factors are inter-related, but will be examined
independently.
Orientation and Dispositions
The
degree of classroom management effectiveness and function were found to relate
to the orientation taken by the teacher and their dispositions related to
teaching (Shindler, Jones, Taylor, Cadenas 2004). High levels of effectiveness
were related first, to the degree to which the locus of control of the teacher
is internal rather than external, and second, the level intentionality of the
system of management. Therefore, the peak of this axis represents practices
that are less accidental and reactive and more systematic, deliberate and
reflect an increasing level of teacher ownership for student outcomes. Let us
examine both of these sub-factors in more depth.
Responsibility
and Internal Locus of Control
If you talk to a teacher who does an
effective job of classroom management and possesses a high degree of self-efficacy
(Henson, 2001), you will hear in their words the underlying convictions – “I
believe it is about what I do,” and “I am responsible for helping my students
succeed.” The frame of mind that is expressed in this attitude is both internal
– “Success will be dependent on the investment I make in my variable in the
equation,” and responsible – “My job is to help every student
succeed.” Contrast this to the mindset of a teacher who, after a sufficient amount
of training and practice, still demonstrates ineffectiveness and experiences a
high level of student failure. In most cases, the attitudes that these teachers
express are both external – “There is nothing that I can do with these kids,”
and irresponsible – “It is not my fault.”
Greenwood
(1990) found that teachers who believe that they, and teachers in general, can
motivate students to achieve give less evidence of stress and exhibit more
internal locus of control than do teachers who believe that neither they, nor
other teachers, can affect student performance.
In a study by Guskey & Passaro (1994) the most significant predictor
of teacher efficacy was the degree to which teachers assigned the cause of the
outcomes in their class internally rather than externally. While our success in
the area of classroom management will have a great deal to do with our training
and the methods we choose to employ, our underlying
attitudes related to responsibility and locus of control will be the foremost
determining factors in our success. Simply put, success is impossible
without the mind-set that one is responsible for their student’s learning and
behavioral outcomes.
Chapter
Reflection 2-b: Recall a teacher that you judge to be
excellent. When they speak about their students and their profession, how would
you characterize their language? Does it reflect a more internal or external
locus of control?
Intentionality and Consciousness
Put simply, more effective teacher practices
are demonstrated by those who know what they are trying to accomplish and how
then intend to accomplish it. That is, they are “intentional” in their practice
(Richardson & Fallona, 2001). This approach is contrasted to those that are
short-sighted, reactive and unconscious, which could be described as
“accidental.” Intentional practice is characterized by efforts undertaken
within a larger scheme within which each specific teaching act fits (Pajares,
1992). An accidental set of practices
has no such coherence, and therefore collectively amount
to little if anything beyond a series of disconnected strategies. This lack of
vision creates a lack of confidence and a feeling of discontinuity in the
students, in other words, a sense that they are part of a class that lacks
leadership.
Teaching Choices and Practices
Not all classroom management strategies will
get us where we want to go. Some will lead us up the effectiveness continuum
and others will keep us treading water or can even promote greater degrees of
dysfunction. In this section we will examine those practices that will lead to
the highest levels of sustainable effectiveness, and those to avoid.
Management practices come in three types:
·
Effective practices that we do that we
would want to keep doing.
·
Effective practices that we don’t yet do, or do very well yet (that would affect improvement) that
we would want to begin doing.
·
Ineffective practices that we do, that
we need to stop doing (because they are limiting our success or in some
cases actually leading us down the effectiveness continuum)
Moving
Up the Continuum to a More Functional Approach
As we examine the list of management
practices that will contribute to our movement up the continuum (represented in
Figure 2.3), it should be noted that there are few quick fixes on the list.
Effective practices will have the effect of creating a fundamentally more
functional classroom, and will produce increasingly more effectiveness over
time. They have the effect of empowering
students and bringing out their best. Truly effective practices have the effect
of not only promoting better student behavior, but in addition helping students
become fundamentally better individually and collectively. Below, six practices
are described that have the effect of increasingly and sustainably raising the
level of function in a class. In addition, three strategies for moving to the
highest level on the effectiveness continuum are introduced.
Figure 2.3: Management Practices that One Will Want to
Engage in to Move up the Continuum toward more Functional Approach
|
Practices
That Lead to Higher Levels of Function
|
1. Create Clarity
in all areas of Our Teaching 2. Be a
Source of Consistency 3.
Incorporate Pedagogy that Supports Our Management Goals 4. Develop
a (Basic) Needs Satisfying Learning Environment 5.
Facilitate the Collective Social Bonds and Social Contract among Students 6. Teach
and Practice Our Management Procedures Transformational
Ideas: Moving to the Next Level 7. Intentionally Promote a
“Psychology of Success” in Our Students 8. Move from the role of a Manager to
that of Leader 9. Create Communal Bonds and Community
within the Class |
1.
Create Clarity in all Areas of Our Teaching.
Most of the outcomes that we desire in our
classes will depend to a great extent on our ability to promote clarity within
our environment. Clarity within the classroom has been found to correlate
positively with student achievement, level of engagement and student
satisfaction (Hines, Cruickshank & Kennedy, 1985). Likewise, most classroom
management dysfunction is related to a lack of clarity in some form.
There are four key areas where the existence
of clarity can be seen to mitigate dysfunction. First, students need clear
expectations. Without them, they are forced to guess. This can create a
“vacuum” in expectations, which students fill with their own ideas of conduct.
When we use abstract terms such as responsibility, respect, or “good behavior,”
without defining those concepts in a concrete and material way, these ideas
remain only abstractions. Much of what
we call misbehavior is simply students guessing how to act in ways that we do
not like (i.e., their guess was wrong!). Second, the teacher needs to infuse a
sense of intention and movement to the class. When the class experiences the
deliberate movement toward a goal they are much less likely to be bored,
distracted, or feel their work lacks purpose. Third, students need to be given
clear boundaries. Boundaries help students understand where lines exist
(Bluestein, 1999). In their absence, problems arise. In part, this is due to
the fact that inevitably students come to any class with a wide range of
previously learned behavior and expectation for boundaries. Fourth,
abstractions such as respect, listening, effort, responsibility, etc., need to
be “operationalized” or they will remain only abstractions. Many teachers
complain that their students lack these traits, yet do not make the concepts
concrete and practical for their students. Clarity can only exist in a concrete
and observable world. Words can only point to behavior. Clarity, therefore,
requires an intentional effort on the part of the teacher to make the abstract,
conceptual and assumed into something that is concrete, behavioral, personally
relevant and collectively shared.
Chapter
Reflection 2-c: Recall the last class
that you observed that you would call well managed. Did you get the sense that
the students had a clear sense of the expectations? Recall the last class that
you observed that you would consider poorly managed. Did you get the sense that
the students had a clear sense of the expectations?
2.
Be a Source of Consistency
Along with clarity, if the element of
consistency exists in a classroom, things will run relatively smoothly
(Evertson & Emmer, 2003). Even a flawed set of strategies, if applied
consistently, will result in relatively effective results. How is classroom function and/or dysfunction
and the idea of consistency related? First, the consistency of one’s actions
promotes or detracts from another’s sense that a person is trustworthy. Part of
being trusted by students is being reliable. When our decision-making process
is perceived as too subjective, or random, students lose trust in us. The loss
of trust usually translates ultimately into a loss of commitment on the part of
the student. Second, when the teacher follows through and consistently
implements consequences, it makes the (concrete and practical) statement that
the agreement (i.e., our social contract, class rules, bill or rights, etc.) is
primary and the teacher’s subjective interpretation is secondary. Third, when we are working with a student or
a class to help shape behavior, reinforcing more functional behavior is
necessary. In many cases, even a small amount of contradictory reinforcement
can undermine our efforts. Consistency helps clarify the cause and effect
thinking we are trying to build. Inconsistency confuses it.
Chapter Reflection
2-d: Related
to consistency, a useful principle to maintain as a teacher is that “it is not
the severity of the consequence that will make it effective, it is the
certainty.” Consider the consequences that we negotiate everyday. Typically we
take those that are certain more seriously than those that are more severe but
less likely.
For example, imagine, if you were a driver who had a
tendency to like to drive faster than the speed limit, which intervention would
be more likely to modify your behavior:
- If
your car was equipped with a meter that fined you $1 for every time your car
went over the limit?
- If
you knew that there was a patrol car that gave $1,000 tickets to a handful of
speeders each year?
3. Incorporate Pedagogy that Supports Our
Management Goals
If you offer students a curriculum defined by
monotonous tasks, mindless busy-work and exclusively teacher-directed learning,
expect problems. Students involved in
passive learning often use disruptive behavior to achieve a sense of control,
engagement, satisfaction, and fun. Students who are engaged, challenged, and
see a real-world value to their work will be much more interested in learning
than creating problems. When students
feel successful, they associate that success with the source (you the teacher),
when they are bored and unsuccessful they associate that failure experience with
you as well. Teachers who accumulate positive association over time are able to
use that “emotional capital” later when they need to make requests.
4. Create a (Basic) Needs Satisfying Learning
Environment
If the students’ basic needs for power, competence,
belonging, freedom, and fun are not met by what you provide in their
experience, they will find ways to meet those needs by other means (Glasser,
1998). Often those other means include unwanted and/or problem behavior
(Driekurs 1974, Albert 2003). If we look
at a student’s actions from within the lens “is this student doing what I
want?” then when that student misbehaves, we have little useful insight for a
solution to the problem. However, if we examine student’s actions within the
lens “what basic needs are the students attempting to meet with this behavior?”
then we are well on our way to making sense of the problem, and identifying
solutions. When we create engaging learning activities that create a sense of
“psychological movement” in the class, a good portion of the reasons for
misbehavior are removed, and replaced with reasons for students to invest and
enjoy their time in our class. Moreover, our students experience our curriculum
as culturally relevant and meaningful to their lives, they are more likely to
connect with it and less likely to express their sense of disconnection in very
understandable acts of passive and/or active resistance.
5. Facilitate the Collective Social Bonds and
Social Contract among the Students
We are the primary force in the room that can
help the students become responsible to one another and develop a set of social
bonds that support the group’s capacity to function. Rules answer the question,
“What am I supposed to do in here?” The Social Contract answers the question,
“What – if I did it – would help the class function more effectively, and best
ensure my rights as a member?” Few students feel a sense of ownership over
rules. However, bonds by their very nature are owned by those that share them,
and are therefore are much more likely to lead to responsible behavior.
6. Teach and Practice your Management
Procedures
If our students do not know how to behave,
listen, transition from one thing to another, interact respectfully, work
cooperatively in a group, resolve conflict, process failure, line up, perform
when you leave the room, etc., it is our responsibility to teach them these
things, or to stop complaining when they do them poorly. Burden (2003) suggests
that we think about teaching our classroom procedures in the same way that we
think about teaching any other content. In Chapter 6, we will discuss
strategies for promoting this area--strategies that we will refer to as
“Technical Management.”
Chapter
Reflections 2-e:
When you observe a class that is running smoothly early in the year, ask the
teacher how it got to be that way. There was likely a lot of practice and
intentional effort put toward the management in the first few days.
Transformational Ideas: Moving Your Management to the Next Level
As you become more skilled at recognizing and
executing the six ideas listed above, you may find yourself ready to stretch
your efforts toward a more advanced set of ideas for achieving effectiveness.
These next three ideas represent avenues for not only reducing behavioral
dysfunction but for helping your students transform their current level of
functioning into one in which they can truly thrive.
7. Intentionally Promote a “Psychology of
Success” in Our Students
In Chapter 7, we will explore in depth the
three core psychological orientations of the successful learner, and how to
cultivate them. They are: an internal
locus of control, a sense of
acceptance and belonging, and a mastery
orientation to learning. As you will
recognize upon examining the factors that promote or detract from one’s
psychology of success, much of what is accepted as common discipline practice
actually acts to elicit a “failure psychology” in students.
8. Move from a Manager Role to a Leader Role
As you progress through the book you will be
given ideas for thinking about classroom management as not simply a process of
keeping students on task and motivated, but to help them become
self-responsible. Glasser (1998) describes the role of teacher leader as one
who sets and models high expectations, encourages students to evaluate their
own work, and promotes a climate of support and empowerment that is free of
coercion.
9. Create Communal Bonds and Community within
the Class. Societal bonds answer the question, “What am
I required to do, and what can I expect from others?” These bonds are critical
for helping reduce problems and providing a functional environment. However, if
students experience their class as a community it opens up a wide range of new
ways that they can grow both personally and collectively (Baker et al.,
1997). Communal bonds are characterized
by the question, “What can I do to make the collective better?” As students
increasingly take on this mindset, there will be a corresponding decrease in
the number of classroom management problems. Moreover, problems themselves
become opportunities for growth. Developing community is discussed specifically
in Chapter 16.
Chapter Reflection
2-f:
In what ways do you want your teaching and classroom management to have a
transformative effect on your students?
Practices that Draw us Downward on the Continuum and will
Eventually Lead to a Greater Degree of Dysfunction
Most ineffective classroom management
practices are done intentionally by thoughtful teachers and staff members.
While upon closer examination these flawed practices can be seen to lead to a
greater level of dysfunction and in many cases unwanted byproducts, most often
they are perceived to be “working.” They have an effect that appears to be
desirable, and in the short term, and on the surface they seem to be getting
results. But as we will examine in this section and throughout the remainder of
the book, these practices (Figure 2.4) erode the core foundation of effective
classroom management and lead us down the continuum of effectiveness.
If we could separate out each of the hundreds
of practices that we employ in a typical day of teaching, we could assess each
independently. When we put them all together, they may all seem necessary and
beneficial, but when we examine each in isolation, we can better recognize
which ones are getting us where we want to go, and which are not. As we examine
many of the popular but ineffective strategies, what we find is that they
exchange one type of dysfunction for another. Problems are not getting solved
they are simply changing forms. As you survey the dysfunctional strategies
listed below, ask yourself, “What dysfunctional state is being traded for what
other dysfunctional state?”
Chapter
Reflection 2-k: Recall the last time you heard a teacher
include the phrase “that won’t work with these kids.” Do your own investigative
research and see if you can discover any teachers that are in fact succeeding
with that strategy with similar students.
Figure
2.4: Management Practices that Ultimately Lead a Class in a Downward Movement
in the Continuum toward Greater Dysfunction
|
|
1. Relying on Bribes, Gimmicks and Short-term
Fixes 2. Incorporating Negative
Strategies, Assuming they will Eventually Produce Positive Results 3. Using Punishments and/or a
“Pain-Based Logic” in Your Discipline 4. Intermingling the Personal with
the Performance 5. Involving those that are not
involved |
1. Trusting Bribes and Gimmicks to
Motivate Students
Short-term fixes such as bribes and gimmicks
may obtain an apparent desired outcome initially, but in most cases they will erode
the long-term quality of classroom discipline and/or motivation (Ryan &
Deci, 2000). Bribes such as prizes for desired behavior, giving preferred
activity time, rewarding students with inactivity (free time or avoiding work),
stickers, stars, and gimmicks such as names on the board, or colored behavioral
charts seem like good ideas on the surface. But as we progress further in the
book, you will better recognize that each of these strategies actually does
more long term harm than good. Bribes,
by definition, make the statement “you need to be given something of no
educational value to con you into doing something educational.” The students’
need for bribes will inherently grow, as their intrinsic appreciation for
learning will become suppressed. Later, in Chapter 6, we will explore how
extrinsic rewards used purposefully can promote clarity of expectations as
opposed to operating as bribes. Colored
card behavioral charts and names on the board work on the principle that public
shame will modify behavior. For some students this might be true in the
short-term, but in the end, these strategies will work against the development
of responsible behavior and against the reduction of misbehavior. While they
are common and seductive, in Chapter 19 we will explore the many reasons why
they create more problems than they solve.
2. Incorporating Negative Strategies,
Assuming they will Eventually Produce Positive Results
If we are waiting for our disappointment,
complaining, lectures, guilt, shaming, put-downs or any other negative actions
(or, more accurately, passive and hostile inactions)
to translate into better student behavior, it is a safe assumption that we will
be waiting forever. These strategies may
provide us with a momentary relief from the feeling of responsibility, and may
even feel like action, but they are at best useless actions to which students
become immune very quickly, and are toxic and destructive influences that erode
the motivation and emotional climate in the class. The law of cause and effect
dictates that every action will have an equal and opposite reaction, thus these
negative actions will breed a corresponding negative response from students.
This reaction exhibits itself in a wide range of manifestations of dysfunction
ranging from apathy to conflict. We can’t discard these practices soon enough!
The remaining chapters will offer positive and practical alternatives.
Chapter
Reflection 2-g:
Recall someone you knew who constantly told you what you did that was wrong.
How did it make you feel? Was it motivational?
3. Using Punishments and/or a
“Pain-Based Logic” in Your Discipline
The deliberate use of punishment presumes
that if one administers enough pain to a student it will result in that student
changing behavior. This same logic goes for showing disapproval, put downs, or
anything else that implies the use of discomfort in attempt to modify behavior
or “teach a lesson.” There are two problems with this logic. First, punishment
does not do a very good job of teaching lessons, unless the lesson is how not
to get caught and/or how to avoid the source of the punishment. Second,
introducing more pain into the equation of a class environment will inevitably
create a ripple effect that will manifest itself in such behavior as rebellion,
displaced aggression among students, negative identity promotion, as well as
increasing the level of fear and anxiety (Kauffman, 2005).
In Chapter 18, we take a closer look at how
this “pain-based logic” is at the heart of the 4-Style management approach that
has remained so prevalent. We will examine how to move from this style, up the
continuum, to one both healthier and more effective. In Chapter 9, we will
examine why logical and related consequences are vastly more desirable
alternatives to punishments for both changing behavior and encouraging more
self-responsible thinking and actions on the part of the students.
4. Intermingling the Personal with the Performance
It is tempting to try to encourage better
student behavior with personalized strategies, such as personal praise,
disappointment, affection and withdrawal of affection. We can assume that these types of strategies
will help us leverage our relationship with the students into better
performance and/or behavior, but in the end, it will work against each of our
goals – the relationship, the level of performance, and the quality of
behavior. Let’s examine why. When a
student is given personal praise (i.e., “you are good because you are done” or
“I like you because you are behaving well.”) for desired performance, or given
personal criticism (i.e., “you are not good because you are not done.” Or “I am
disappointed in you because of the way that you are acting.”) for undesirable
performance, the line between self and actions is confused. Consequently, there
are a whole series of problems that stem from this confusion. Let us briefly
identify two of them. First, it results in a student who spends an unnecessary
amount of time thinking about whether they have pleased the teacher rather than
gaining satisfaction from the process of learning for its own sake. In the
early grades, this is experienced as love and the loss of love depending on
one’s performance. In the later grades, this is experienced as the teacher’s
public comparison of students, playing favorites with those that perform better
in their course, or threatening to lower grades for students who “act up.”
Second, when the performance and the personal are co-mingled it introduces an
external and random/subjective logic into the class. The result is a diffusion
of the clarity of classroom expectations and students’ internal locus of
control, in which students think and act tentatively, always keeping one eye on
the teacher, as opposed to developing their own sense of self-direction. This
invites more misbehavior and collective dysfunction. Instead of students
learning to function for self-responsible reasons, they behave to please the
teacher - to the degree they want to please the teacher. What we achieve over
time with these personalized strategies are students who behave on days that
they want to reward the teacher and not on days that they do not want to reward
the teacher or have more powerful internal reasons (i.e., friends, the weather,
bad moods, or meeting any of their basic needs) to disregard their loyalty to
the them.
Assessing student participation can be a
healthy and effective strategy. It can help clarify and reinforce student
effort and investment in the process. But in most applications it is used as a
subtle or not-so-subtle form of manipulation. This must be done intentionally
and thoughtfully or not done at all. Chapter 21 outlines a positive and
effective system for assessing student participation.
Chapter Reflection
2-h:
When you observe those teachers who seem to make the job look easy, do you find
common attitudes among them? Conversely, when you observe those teachers who
seem to be perpetually unhappy and fighting against their students, do you find
common ways of thinking among them?
5. Involving Those That Were Not Involved.
Albert Jones (2007) suggests that when we
involve persons into the equation of our discipline interactions who were not
originally involved in the event of significance, the result is a weakening of
our discipline environment. When we tend to use a lot of referrals to the
office and administrative interventions, we make the implicit statement that we
cannot manage our class ourselves. Likewise, having the parents involved in the
learning process can be an invaluable asset in helping our students succeed.
However, when we out-source our problems to the students’ parents it leads to
an erosion of our authority. When we involve those that were not involved, we
shift the locus of control externally and away from where it can be most
effective – the cause and effect relationship between the student’s choices and
our consequent actions.
Chapter Reflection 2-i: Recall a teacher that you have
observed that sent a lot of students out of the room and regularly called
parents requesting that they straighten out their children. Did that teacher
have a well-managed class? Do you see a connection?
Commonly, dysfunctional practices like those
described above can be alluring and thus difficult to give up. But their use
will inevitably keep us mired in the bottom quadrants of the matrix. As you
work on moving away from short-term fixes, you will likely be tempted to resort
to them in times of crisis for a period of time. However, if you are ultimately
successful in resisting their appeal and instead put your efforts into
developing a set of effective long-term practices, you will increasingly notice
the contrast between the effects of the less effective practices and the more
effective replacements, and recognize that the old practices were in fact
keeping you stuck in a rut. However, if you do not take time to reflect on the
beliefs and misconceptions that first attracted you to these ineffective
strategies, you may find an irresistible desire to revert to them once again.
Chapter Reflection : 2-
If you find yourself
strongly attached to these practices, it that attachment related to where you
learned these strategies? For many of us, these ideas may have been modeled by
or suggested to us by teachers whom we respected. It is understandable to
therefore have an attachment to the ideas, but that is not a sufficient reason
to retain them and thereby keep hindering our own success. Typically, as we
reflect on this “model teacher’s” practices more critically, we will likely
recognize that while they may have been generally effective, there was a cost
for the use of any of these practices listed above.
How Our Thinking Can Promote Either Movement Up or Down
the Continuum
As Eckhart Tolle (1999) states “If we do not
change the thinking that has created the problem-making conditions in our
lives, even if our situation changes, we will soon find a new set of problems
to replace the old ones.” Often just the way that we think can produce the
experience of dysfunction, dissatisfaction and/or unease. To a great extent,
our classrooms will be a projection of what is taking place in our minds. Our
thinking can be a great ally in our efforts or our own worst enemy.
As we examine the relationship between our
thinking and the quality of our classroom management, we find that some types
of thinking tend to lead us down the effectiveness continuum toward
dysfunction, while other types tend to encourage our progress upward. At the
heart of what will make us effective will be our ability to maintain our
attention in the present moment. A past focus will lead to blame or dwelling on
what we did not like, or wish we still had. A future focus will keep us
desiring the future and wishing the present was different. This lack of
acceptance of the present will not only make us less effective, but less
content. Taking the actions of students personally will lead us to reactive
behavior and make us less intentional and aware. Keeping our attention on what
is important now (WIN) will lead to greater function as well as peace of mind.
Feelings of negativity and disappointment are signs that we are personalizing
the events in the room and have gotten lost in wallowing in the past, or
wishing for the future. As we become more effective at staying in the moment,
keeping our attention on what we can do to improve our situation, and taking on
an attitude of appreciation for our students, we find that not only do we deal
with problems more effectively, we have fewer to deal with in the first place.
In Chapter 17 we will examine the relationship between our thinking and the
quality of our classroom management in more detail.
Figure
2.7: Depicting the Horizontal axis of the Management Style Matrix:
Student-Centered vs. Teacher Centered
Horizontal Axis – Teacher- vs.
Student- Centered
The horizontal axis of the matrix represents
the range of practices related to the locus of power, ownership, and
fundamental goals for any class. This
axis ranges from a very teacher-centered to a very student-centered
orientation. While this dichotomy represents a bit of an oversimplification, it
offers a very basic contrast in teaching philosophy, as we will see when we
examine each of the sub-factors – ownership, goals and assumptions -- in more
depth.
Ownership
and Power
In the teacher-centered class, the power rests
primarily with the teacher, as does the ownership for decision-making. In a
teacher-centered class, the students need only follow instructions. In a student-centered class, the teacher
takes on the role of guiding the students’ efforts. Ownership for decisions,
large and small, is given to the students, whenever possible. This leaves the
students with a higher burden for solving problems and making consequential
choices. The question that best defines the contrast in this continuum is, “who
has their hands on the steering wheel of the class?”
Goals
and Purpose
The underlying goal of a teacher-centered
class is order. The underlying goal of a student-centered class is student
self-reliance. In the teacher-centered
class, success is defined by how well the students execute their
responsibilities and the level of efficiency that exists in the learning
environment. The rationale behind this thinking is that in an orderly and
obedient classroom, there is less wasted time, and more on-task behavior, which
benefits everyone. So the view in a teacher-directed class is that the ends
--students who are more productive more of the time -- justify the means,
teacher direction. In the student-centered class, success is defined by the
amount of personal and collective growth that the students experience over the
course of the term. The rationale behind this thinking is that when students
are put in positions in which they must take ownership for their own learning
and are expected to be self-responsible, they learn lessons that are as
valuable as anything that they can learn from the curriculum.
Basic
Assumptions and Motivation
At the heart of a teacher-centered approach
is the assumption that students need to be managed or they will misbehave by
nature. Basic to a student-centered approach is that students have an inherent
desire to learn and improve. Therefore, in the teacher-centered thinking, it is
desirable to take a teacher-directed approach because the students need
it. In contrast, the student-centered
thinking would suppose that the reason that students might appear to need a
teacher-directed class is that they have become dependent on them, and are just
lacking the opportunities to develop their own self-responsible nature.
As a result of these basic assumptions a
teacher-centered approach will have an inclination toward the use of extrinsic
rewards. This approach finds rewards and punishments a very effective way to
change behavior. Since the result is often more desirable behavior more of the
time, the ends support the use of the means. A student-centered classroom
resists the use of extrinsic rewards and punishments, and views them as
vehicles that rob a student of their intrinsic motivation. This approach sets
out to create a learning environment that is inherently motivating, and relies
more heavily on tapping into student interests and meeting students’ basic
needs.
Chapter
Reflection 2-l: Where would you place your management
orientation along the horizontal continuum? Are you more inclined toward a more
student-centered or a more teacher-centered approach to classroom management?
The Resulting Matrix: Four Differing
Approaches to Management
When we position one axis
across the other, we are left with four quadrants that characterize four very different
approaches to classroom management and teaching in general. Throughout the
book, each particular management approach/style will be referred by its style
number, 1-4, to represent each of the four quadrants of the matrix. Those at
the top have been assigned 1-Style and 2-Style, while those at the bottom were
assigned 3-Style and 4-Style. Numbers are only used to distinguish quadrants,
not to assign value. The orientation
that is most your style and best for you will be left to you to decide – the 4-Style
or Dominator, 3-Style of Enabler, 2-Style of Conductor or the 1-Style or
Facilitator. However, you will be persuaded very early in the book (if you need
persuading or have not been persuaded by now) that either a 1- or 2-Style
orientation will produce profoundly greater degrees of success for both the
teacher and the students.
As far as which
orientation-- 2-Style or 1-Style-- is more effective, the reader is asked to
judge for him or herself the approach that best fits their own personal
teaching style and goals. A sound, healthy classroom with a fully functioning
set of rules, responsibilities and shared expectations can be achieved with
either a 2-Style or a 1-Style management approach. But as the reader will
discover throughout the book there are advantages and disadvantages of each
orientation (see Figure 2.11).
Figure 2.8: Four-Quadrant
Matrix of Management Style Orientation and Practice with Descriptions
A Brief Description of Each of the Four Classroom Management Approaches
4-Style or Dominator Management Approach
The essence of the 4-Style
orientation is the teacher as “boss.” The teacher who uses a 4-Style feels
compelled to dominate by both overt and covert means. Students in the class see
quickly that they have only two choices, to be obedient or rebel. While there
appears to be a high degree of intentionality to the 4-Style management
practice due to the authoritarian display of power, a closer examination
reveals much less intention in reality. Because the teacher acts so frequently
out of a reactive mode, students are seldom fully sure what to expect. The mood
of the teacher has a great deal to do with the climate of the class on any
particular day. Moreover, the 4-Style manager is typically a fan of extrinsic
rewards, “sit and get” teaching methods, and the use of grading for the purpose
of coercion.
As we will discuss in more
detail in Chapter 18 (Moving Up
the Teaching Style Continuum from the 4-Style “Dominator” to a 2- or 1-Style
Approach), at the
heart of the 4-Style management approach is a “pain-based logic.” To attain
their desired outcomes the teacher resorts to the delivery of pain to
students in the form of punishments, threats, anger, public humiliation,
victimizing humor, putting names on the board, and shaming. As a result, the
4-Style classroom takes on a combative and hostile climate. As the pain is
exchanged between the teacher and the student, over time an increasing number
of negative side effects occur, including a decrease in motivation, a lack of
trust, an emotionally unsafe climate, and various acts of displaced aggression.
3-Style or Enabler Management Approach
The defining
characteristic of the 3-Style manager is passivity. They experience perpetual
disappointment that the students are letting them down. The teacher using a
3-Style operates under the faulty assumption that if they make enough
reasonable verbal appeals to students (rather than taking deliberate action
and/or delivering meaningful consequences), at some point, the students will
respond with functional behavior. In most cases, the teacher employing a
3-Style is acting out of the rejection of what they see as the unhealthy,
authoritarian, 4-Style manager. Yet what they produce is often just as
accidental and chaotic as what they are trying to avoid. And commonly, when the
3-Style manager becomes too frustrated with the students’ dysfunction and lack
of respect, they react with episodes of hostility, which brings them even more
inner conflict.
The fundamental problem is
that the teacher using a 3-Style approach preaches self-direction and internal
motivation, yet does little to promote them. They confuse the need for
structure with being controlling, which they see as objectionable. The 3-Style
is typically well intentioned, but inherent in this approach is a lack of
courage to lead. Their commitment to promoting student interests is noble, but
over time students learn that they are able to act as they please. As a result,
a high degree of “Social Darwinism” becomes the defining quality for the peer
relations. Without intending to, teachers who use a 3-Style promote a rather
unsafe emotional climate, thus their label the “enabler.” Cooperative learning
and engaging hands on-activities that are the preference of the 3-Style
approach increasingly descend into playtime and a chance for students to “mess
around,” as a result of a lack of clear direction and purpose.
Chapter
Reflection 2-m: When you reflect on the easy-going and permissive
3-Style teachers that you have observed, what happened to their affect when
things begin to go bad? Did the teacher stay easy going? Did that permissive
attitude translate into emotional safety for the students in the class? In
other words, did you find that when the teacher did not worry about taking
action that it translated into students not worrying about what might happen to
them?
Moving from a 3 to a 1-Style Orientation
If you have a strong commitment to a student-centered approach, but
realize that your efforts have led you to what you would characterize as a
3-Style, there is hope. And of all those who choose to pick up this book, you
may be the one with the most to gain. It is likely that you have felt a
temptation to adopt 2-Style approach, yet the encouragement of others who find
success with a more teacher-centered approach does not leave you entirely
convinced or comfortable abandoning your student-centered principles. You have
likely had to endure a great deal of disparagement. No one gets criticized like
the 3-Style teacher. Because of what appears to be a very active (albeit
hostile) approach by 4-Style teachers, people usually leave them alone. But for
you they typically feel more free to give advice.
Improvement of your situation begins with an examination
of the essence of the vertical axis – Intentionality and Internality. Don’t
confuse taking action for being controlling. As you explore the coming
chapters, you will discover how much planning and deliberate effort must go
into helping students become self-directed. The methodological pathway is
spelled out in detail.
2-Style or Conductor Management Approach
The most popular classroom
management training in the past few years has been defined by the 2-Style
orientation. Those such as Canter (1992), Wong (1991), Jones 2001), and many
others would best be described as teacher-centered approach proponents. To
characterize this style the Canters provide the useful term “assertive
discipline” to distinguish an effective classroom manager from either the
passive (3-Style) or hostile (4-Style) approaches which they identify as
largely ineffective. The assertive
2-Style “Conductor” builds their approach on logical consequences, rather than
personal attacks and negativity.
The Conductor takes a very
intentional approach to management. A successful 2-Style approach begins early
in the year with a period of training and education in rules, procedures, and
consequences. As if under the command of an orchestra conductor, the class is
trained to respond to directions in a very efficient manner. The structure in
the 2-Style classroom is evident. It is built on consistency and clarity. Out
of this structure, the goals of a productive learning environment, respect,
accountability and positive relationships are constructed. The 2-Style classroom includes a heavy
reliance on encouragement and rewards. The pedagogy in the 2-Style approach
tends to lean toward direct instruction, but includes multiple methods that
have been demonstrated to obtain results.
1-Style or Facilitator Management Approach
Relatively few teachers
choose to take the path of the “facilitator” or 1-Style approach. The ultimate
goal of the 1-Style approach is to create a class that is self-directed and
manages itself. These teachers understand that to do this it will take time,
but are willing to live with what might feel like a little less predictability
so as to achieve their long-term goals. One-Style management goals are defined
by an intentional promotion of the students’ intrinsic motivation and sense of
personal responsibility. Students in the 1-Classroom grow in their ability to
answer both the “what are we doing?” as well as the “why are we doing it?”
kinds of questions. An implicit understanding of the community expectations is
cultivated. To achieve this end, the 1-Style teacher makes a devoted attempt to
help student recognize the value of functional and responsible behavior.
The 1-Style approach
places the emphasis on the process of learning over end products, and personal
growth rather than the attainment of rewards or the students’ relative success
in comparison to other students. The
1-Style orientation values long-term student empowerment over what might be
considered methods that appear to be “working” in the short-term. The goal is not to merely have the student
appear on task, but to know that the learning is building toward a positive
orientation toward learning itself. The
pedagogical approaches that define the 1-Style orientation are typically
constructivist, collaborative and problem-based.
Chapter Reflection 2-n: As we reflect on the differences
between the 1-Style and 2-Style teaching approach, it can be useful to bring in
the metaphor of music for the sake of comparison. Which type of music would best
characterize each style? For this exercise let us argue that jazz fits best as
a 1-Style form of music and classical fits best as a 2-Style. Can either type
of music be produced in a way that is masterful and sounds entirely effective
and coordinated, as well as beautiful? Certainly. So what does it take to make
great classical music? Most likely we would need sheet music, well trained
musicians, a conductor, and practice. Likewise, what does it take to make great
jazz music? Can it be done without a conductor? Yes. Can it be done without
sheet music? Yes. Could four expert jazz musicians who had never met get in a
room and play beautiful music? Very likely. So what does is necessary to make
that happen. It is the knowledge of on the part of the musicians as to how to
play jazz – the “rules,” so to speak. As we compare the basis of 1-Style vs.
2-Style management, we might ask ourselves, do we want our classes to be well
conducted orchestras, or a collection of students who knows how to function in
a coordinated manner without a conductor?
Figure 2.9 Key Characteristics of Each of the
4 Management Orientations
|
|
Student-Centered
|
Teacher-Centered
|
Effective/Intentional
|
1-Style Approach
|
2-Style Approach
|
Ineffective/Accidental
|
3-Style Approach
|
4-Style Approach
|
Chapter
Reflection 2-o: Recall
the last teacher that you have observed.
Which style would best characterize his/her management approach?
Comparing the
Advantages of 2-Style vs. 1-Style management approach
As you reflect on your own personal values and what you envision wanting to accomplish in your classroom, you may find yourself being drawn more to either the 2-Style or 1-Style approaches to management. Each approach is developed over the next several chapters, often side by side. Figure 2.10 outlines a brief list of advantages of each orientation.
Figure 2.10
Advantages of Each of the Intentional Management Approaches
|
Advantages of the 2-Style Approach |
Advantages of the 1-Style Approach |
|
Can get functioning system in place
relatively quickly. |
Working toward a self-regulating system
eventually. |
|
Clearly understood teacher and student
roles likely. |
Increasingly empowered students over time. |
|
Relatively simple to repeat each year and
export to other teacher’s classrooms. |
Promotes a lot of learning and insight into
the skills necessary to participate in a democratic system. |
|
The overt structure of the system is
readily apparent to administrators, parents and other teachers. |
The implicit structure becomes evident (and
impressive) to others who are able to spend time in the class and appreciate
the intention. |
|
Low stress on the part of teacher and
students related to low ambiguity and chaos. |
Leads to high levels of teacher and student
(needs) satisfaction. |
Chapter
Reflection 2-p: What would you anticipate to be the forms of
resistance to using a 1-Style approach in a school characterized by a 4-Style
environment? The experience of Erin Gruwell depicted in the movie “Freedom
Writers” may be useful to consider as you reflect.
Can I Incorporate
Practices from All 4 Approaches?
Technically, one can use practices that would
fit into any number of orientations, however, there is a cost. First,
incorporating practices from the 3 or 4 orientation will have a destructive
effect on your 2-Style or 1-Style based classroom plan, and lead the user down
the effectiveness continuum. Often
without being aware of it, a very sound 2-Style or 1-Style teacher will use
4-Style orientation practices such as punishments, unhealthy praise, or public
shaming (especially in the form of putting names on the board), and also
without knowing it they shift down the matrix as they handicap their ability to
be more fully successful with their students.
Students cannot articulate, in most cases,
that the use of particular practices feel contradictory and operate to send mixed
messages, but they certainly experience it. And very often when a teacher is
relatively likable and successful with their intentional forms of practice, it
is difficult to measure the damage 3-Style and 4-Style practices inflict on
their classes. As you continue reading you may notice that much of the content
of the book is devoted to illumination of why 3-Style and 4-Style practices are
detrimental, and often insidiously so.
“I cannot decide between a 2-Style or 1-Style
approach, can I use some of each?” This is a common question. Incorporating a
little from one and a little from the other is certainly workable. And we
should remember that the main consideration in the process is to move our
practice upward on the vertical axis. Yet, if you mix approaches, you may be
sending mixed messages. A common example of a mixed-orientation message would
be allowing students to be self-directed in some cases and in other similar
situations simply giving orders. This can send the message that “sometimes I
trust you and sometimes I don’t.” On first glance this is probably how we
genuinely feel towards our students. So
what is the problem? Take a moment to reflect from the perspective of the
student. What do you hear in that message? Is it trust? Who has their hands on
the steering wheel of the class? The students need to be clear as to your
answer, or they will show their frustration.
As you progress through the book, it is likely that you will encounter
ideas that will facilitate your decision to move one direction or the other.
Conclusion
No matter our personal style, we can all have
an effective teaching style. However, as we have discussed in this chapter, an
effective classroom will require being intentional about the practices we choose
to employ as well as self-aware of our attitudes and orientation toward
teaching and our students. For some of us we will be most comfortable pursuing
the path of becoming a master 2-Style teacher. For others, a 1-Style will be
the goal. Most importantly, our effort should be to move up the effectiveness
continuum toward those practices and thinking that will lead to greater levels
of function.
What to Expect from the Remainder of the Book
Look for references to the management style
orientation matrix in the coming chapters. When you see this symbol, it will
identify a reference being made to the matrix.
Chapter 17 offers an examination of the
4-Style approach, and a set of steps to move from there up the continuum to a
1- or 2-Style approach. It includes an
in-depth analysis of why 4-Style management is so prevalent despite its
apparent drawbacks, and why so many of us are attached to this style. Many
subsequent chapters will incorporate the lens of the contrasting approaches of
the 2-Style and 1-Style orientation to their topic areas. Chapter 15 is devoted to how to successfully
create the 1-Style classroom.
In the next chapter, we will examine the
implicit level of the “classroom reality.” Before we begin to examine
strategies and practices that will help us achieve the transformative
classroom, we will need to examine the implicit factors within the classroom
that can support our efforts or hold us back.
Journal
Reflections:
1. What style of
classroom management is most appealing to you at this time – 1, 2, 3, or 4?
Why? Was it an easy choice?
2.
Does the school in which you currently work (or predict that you may work in)
align with your style choice? Do you see areas where their may be either
resistance or support?
Discuss
two things that you feel that you need to do more of (or include in your plan),
and two that you feel that you need to do less of.
2. Have you considered the effects of your
thinking on your teaching? What are areas of change in that area would you feel
might assist you in the process of growth as a teacher?
Class Activities:
1.
1.
Match the following teacher behaviors (A-D) with one of the four teaching
styles (1-4) as classified in the chapter.
|
1-Style
Faciliator 2-Style
Conductor 3-Style
Enabler 4-Style
Dominator |
Phrases
that might be heard A.
When
are you ever going to learn? B.
How
are we doing so far? C.
I
like the way that you did that. D.
I
told you to stop that? Possible
response to Misbehavior A.
Ignores
student B.
Asks
student to come up with a plan to cease the behavior C.
Gives
consequence D.
Gives
detention Most
common choice of Instruction A.
Effective
Direct Instruction B.
Lectures
and tests C.
Open
ended assignment with few guidelines D.
Project
with clear rubric |
2.
In small groups, share with the other members
of the group how you would classify and describe the last four teachers that
you have observed.
3.
Discuss
the following scenario is small groups (or reflect on it individually). Wahid is
a new teacher who wants to create a 1-Style classroom. Many of the teachers and
the culture generally at Wahid’s school would best be classified as 4-Style
management. What do you see as Wahid’s challenges? What can Wahid do? Will Wahid need to conform to the culture of
the school or can he/she find ways to manage in the manner he/she feels is
best?
4.
Examine
one classroom. In your analysis, what practices does the teacher need to
implement do more of, and what do they need to do less of. Explain (to the
class, or your small group) how the problems in the class you have observed
were in your analysis related to the practices of the teacher.
Key to
activity #1
Phrase A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3 Misbehavior A-3,
B-1, C-2, D-4 Instruction A-2, B-4, C-3,
D-1
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