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From Transformative Classroom Management. By John Shindler. ©2008
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permission
In this
Chapter:
Our greatest asset in our effort to promote high quality
classroom management outcomes will be how and what we teach. Classroom
management and instruction are inherently inter-related. As depicted in Figure
12.1, what and how we teach, what and how we assess, and how we manage our
class, will all necessarily affect one another. When we perform effectively in
one area the other two will benefit, and when we engage in practices that are
ineffective in one area, the other two will suffer as well.
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Figure 12.1. The
Inter-related Factors in the Teaching Process
In our research into classroom effectiveness we find that in
almost every case, classrooms with management, behavioral and motivational
problems tend to be characterized by the use of instructional strategies that
failed to promote engagement and/or were insufficiently “needs satisfying”
(Shindler, Jones, Taylor & Cadenas, 2003). In fact, we observed that the
problems that resulted from the use of certain instructional choices were
highly predictable. We notice the same problems being produced by the same kinds
of teaching choices. In contrast, when certain instructional techniques were
employed by the teacher, we find that disciplinary concerns are dramatically
reduced. As we examine
the relationship between pedagogical choices and the types and quantity of
management issues that teachers face, it is evident that each pedagogical
choice was either contributing to or undermining the ability to be successful
in accomplishing one’s teaching goals.
Making
Wise Pedagogical Choices Can Either Promote or Hinder the Ability to Meet Each
of the Following Goals:
·
That knowledge is static and simply academic, or is
co-constructed and a source of power?
·
How to stick to thinking that is safe so as to
protect their egos and narrow construct of what is familiar, or how to take
risks and develop an intrinsic love of learning?
·
To be resigned to a lot in life to which they feel
they are limited, or transcend their life circumstances and class barriers and
become agents of change?
Exploring
the Socio-Political Foundations of Instructional Inequity
It is no surprise that teaching practices vary greatly from
school to school; however, it is remarkable just how much this variation is
related to the socio-economic status of the students in the school. Anyon et
al. (1981) discovered that in a significant proportion of cases, the kind of
teaching found in a school and the class of the students was correlated. She
found that in working class schools the work was characterized by an emphasis
on following rules and directions, and getting the task done. Conformity was
encouraged and there was little explanation for purpose of work. Work was most
often worksheet-driven and did not promote critical thinking. In these working
class schools the emphasis was most commonly on rote and routine.
In middle class schools Anyon observed that there was a
greater emphasis on critical thinking; however, the purpose of learning was
mostly defined by getting good grades and right answers. Students’ interests
were taken into account in the curriculum and management, but creativity was
only somewhat encouraged.
In affluent professional and executive elite Schools, there
was found to be a much greater emphasis on student empowerment. Students were
significantly involved in the decision-making process, and there was a
deliberate attempt to make the learning meaningful and related to real life.
Students’ sense of self-responsibility and self-directedness was promoted.
Management was more defined by reasoning than rules.
Chapter Reflection
12-a: Reflect on the
schools that you have observed. Would you say that you have seen a relationship
between the socio-economic status of the area that schools are located in and
the curriculum and instruction at the school? How would you explain your
findings?
Keep your notes to use for the Chapter Activity at the
end of the chapter.
When presented with the findings of this research, few
students in my classes are surprised, yet, their reactions vary. Many react
with resentment and indignation. Occasionally students deny the validity of the
research. Quite often students who have experienced what Anyon characterizes as
a working class education feel as though they were penalized educationally as a
result of growing up in less affluent areas – in other words, they feel they
were cheated. Consequently, this leads to the tendency to want to assign blame.
And one could say that there is a lot of blame to go around (e.g., society, the
economic system, parents, policy makers, etc). Yet while the political
implications of this research are profound and incendiary, few of us in this
profession are in a position to make wholesale changes to the systemic
realities that contribute to the inequity in our schools. Nonetheless, we are
in a position to change the lives of those in our classes. We can change the
equation for the students that we come in contact with on a daily basis by what
and how we teach. In fact, we are the most powerful factor in the equation.
Therefore, in a very real and concrete manner, we are determining the future of
our students by our pedagogical choices.
The
Pedagogy-Management Connection
Each quarter, the first thing I do with my students during
the class meeting dealing with the relationship between pedagogy and management
is ask them to take a few minutes and (from their experience) fill in the blank
in the following sentence:
Teachers
who do _________ (pedagogically) have fewer management problems.
The ideas generated are consistently valid and insightful.
This is no surprise, given that most of us can recall teachers who, because of
how and what they taught, experienced few management problems. Conversely, we
can usually remember more than a few teachers who because of their
instructional style and choices found themselves dealing with management issues
on a perpetual basis. As you read further in this chapter, you may recognize
practices used by both these enviable and unenviable role models.
Chapter Reflection 12-b: From your observations, what
instructional choices lead to fewer management problems? It may be helpful to
recall teachers you have observed who have been so successful at getting
students to learn that their classes have fewer than average discipline issues,
as well as teachers who as a result of how they teach seem to have more
discipline issues than most. Save your answers for Chapter Activity #2 at the
end of the chapter.
As we
examine the effects of various teaching choices and practices, it is
interesting to find that those that produce effective learning outcomes also
produce a desirable effect on classroom management and discipline. These
practices can be separated into the following five key areas:
1.
Effectiveness
of Lesson Preparation, Organization and Mechanics
Much of our success as teachers will be related to our
ability to be effective with the many practical aspects of managing a lesson.
Difficulties with these small things can add up add up to substantial problems.
Kounin (1970) in his examination of effective teachers noticed that those who
used certain instructional strategies had fewer incidents of misbehavior. He
found that most misbehavior was the result of poor teacher planning and
execution. He concluded from his research that it was better to be proactive
than reactive when it came to classroom management.
Kounin observed that there were explicable areas in the
technical act of teaching that contributed to more or fewer behavioral
problems. One of the fundamental qualities that Kounin observed in good
teachers was what he termed “with-it-ness,’ in other words, being aware of what is going on in the
class, or having eyes in the back of one’s head. If you are one of those who
feels lacking in with-it-ness (i.e., you feel that you miss social cues and are
often unaware of the moods and mischief in the room), you may find teaching
more frustrating than you originally conceived it to be. However, you can be
successful if you learn to develop the skills related to technical management
(see Chapter 12) and effective lesson management described here.
Chapter Reflection 12-c: Reflect on your level of
“with-it-ness.” Would you say that you have a great deal – you have eyes in the
back of your head? Or would you say that you often miss the cues and moods on
the class? It is useful to note that some degree of one’s level of with-it-ness
will be related to intentional factors, while some portion will be innate
(i.e., related to one’s level of field-dependence or independence).
Field-independent teachers can be highly successful. However, whereas the
field-dependent teacher with more natural with-it-ness may find management a
relatively natural skill, the more field-independent teacher may need to accept
that it will take a bit more intention and skill development.
Kounin
found that those teachers who were most successful were effective in their
management of the technical aspects of the lesson. These aspects included
maintaining the students’ attention, cues to alert the group to necessary
information, and ways to foster accountability throughout the class. He also
found that teachers who were able to manage the lesson mechanics had fewer
problems. He broke this area into four separate skills – overlapping, managing movement, momentum, and smoothness. Overlapping is the skill of being able to attend to
two or more things at once. Managing movement is the skill of creating
effective transitions and procedures. Momentum relates to one’s ability to keep
the lesson flowing without stops and starts, disruptions, or discontinuity.
Smoothness is the ability to create ease and clarity in the lesson and avoiding
jerkiness and confusion. Kounin found that when the lesson was orchestrated
effectively it led to more on-task behavior and less misbehavior resulting from
student frustration and confusion. In addition, it should be noted that an
effectively managed lesson also makes the statement that the teacher cares and
takes their role as the classroom leader seriously. So while on the practical
level a well-managed lesson promotes efficiency, on an affective level it
promotes the bond between the teacher and the students as well.
When
reflecting on those teachers whose pedagogy contributed to fewer management
problems, you probably found that they exhibited some common skills and intentions.
Those teachers who you judged to be highly effective lesson managers were most
likely: a) prepared on a consistent basis, b) tuned into the class, and c) had
effective strategies for dealing with lesson momentum and timing.
a. Being Prepared. Very simply, preparation, while not insuring success, will certainly
make it more probable. Conversely, when we are ill-prepared or are asked to
teach with a limited opportunity to prepare, most often we experienced a
disproportionate number of management problems. It would be nice if this were
not the case. Time is difficult to find in the teaching profession and finding
the motivation to prepare is often challenging. Yet common sense as well as the
misery that we have experienced as a result of those days in which we tried to
“wing it” unsuccessfully tell us that taking the time to prepare is worth it.
Reflect on how you act when you are less prepared. Commonly, when one is not
prepared, one tends to act more tentatively, uses more words, pauses to think
more often, experiences and projects indecisiveness, changes one’s mind more
often, and is more likely to project weakness and fear. The result is what
Kounin refers to as a lack of smoothness and momentum.
Chapter Reflection 12.d: Recall situations in which you have
been asked to teach or present when you were not prepared. How did you feel?
What was the pervasive emotion? How did that affect manifest itself? Where was
your awareness?
b. Being Tuned in and Aware. Bring to mind the image of a master teacher that you have
observed. Where would you judge their attention to be: the lesson? Themselves?
Or the students? In most cases, a master teacher will be tuned in and aware of
the students. It is very natural and common for new teachers to put their focus
on the lesson plan and “teach the lesson.” But it is important to be aware that
it is possible to be successful teaching the lesson and fail to teach the
students. Sticking to the plan may be effective in many cases, but to be
successful we need to teach students. We need to shift our awareness to what
the students are doing, thinking and feeling. As we will discuss in the next
section, focusing more on learning outcomes and looking for evidence that those
outcomes are being accomplished, rather than thinking about where we are in our
plan, will be a helpful mindset. Especially when we are student teachers or
novice teachers, it will be useful to develop the intention to move our
awareness outward while staying grounded inside. Worrying about what the
students think about us, or being too slavish to the lesson plan will cause us
to miss the essential reality in the class. In other words, we will be more
successful when we are in the moment, and present to our students.
Chapter Reflection 12-e: Reflect on where your awareness is
located when you are confident and comfortable, and alternately where it is
when you are feeling threatened and insecure. We will explore the idea of more
functional thinking in more depth in Chapter 18, but it may be useful to
examine the notion of awareness here briefly. What you likely recognized from
your self-exploration above it that your awareness was located in very
different places in each case. When we are confident and comfortable, we feel a
sense of peace internally that allows us to be present and attentive to what is
around us. When we are threatened, our awareness stays outside of ourselves on
the perceived threat and draws us into a distressed and egocentric internal
dialogue. As a result, when we feel threatened we are likely to create a
distorted and limited perception of what is around us. It may be useful to be
intentional in our efforts to promote a core of peace that will better lead to
our ability to be open and attentive to that around us.
c.
Promoting
Lesson Momentum. When we are aware, we are better able to read the
students and promote lesson momentum. We need to ask ourselves frequently
whether students have reached what Kounin (1970) refers to as “satiation.” Has
our snappy lesson become stale? Have we asked students to take in too many
details? Are we moving too fast and causing frustration? We need to ask
questions and read the students’ body language, recognizing when they are
getting bored, frustrated, or are just ready to move on. If these signals are
present, we ignore them at our peril. If we absolutely must continue with a
task that is causing boredom or frustration, we need to let the students know
that we recognize their emotional state, and 1) there is a legitimate need to
continue and 2) when they can expect the task will be complete. But requesting
that students deny their basic needs should be done sparingly, as it requires
us to make a withdrawal from the emotional bank account we hold with them.
Certain types of instructional methodologies
will lend themselves to greater likelihood of momentum problems. As we will
discuss in the next section, engaging activities have a built-in momentum. Also
recall our discussion in Chapters 7 and 8 related to psychological movement.
Those lessons that contribute to the students’ success psychology (e.g.,
internal locus of control, sense of belonging and acceptance and mastery
orientation) will possess an inherent sense of movement and momentum, as they
tap into internal sources of motivation.
Chapter Reflection 12.f: Imagine that a teacher has come to
you for advice. The situation is that they like to teach their course in an
exclusively lecture and test format. They feel that is the best way to
accomplish their content outcomes. Yet, they admit that they struggle with
classroom management and that their students are frequently bored and restless
much of the time, not to mention achieving poorly. They do not want to change
what they do, but they want their students to be motivated and well-behaved.
What advice do you give them?
d. Make Time Your Friend. For many of us, especially new teachers, managing time is
a challenging part of the job. The fact is that it is not easy, but predicting how
long an activity will last does become easier with experience. In general, it
is better not to fight the clock, but let your learning goals guide your
decision-making related to time. In addition, it is essential to be proactive
and prepared for the potential situations that may arise. Being ready for
anything will make time your friend. Therefore, it will be necessary to have
answers to the following questions in mind before you begin teaching a lesson.
·
What is the essential material or
learning outcome in the lesson? It is useful to have a sense of the learning goals that
“must happen,” “should happen,” and “would be nice if they happened (but are
less critical).” You will be faced with countless situations in which you
recognize that time is limited and you will have to cut something. It is best
to know priorities beforehand.
·
What should students do if they are
done while other students are still working? It is unfair to ask students to be still and
unoccupied simply because they have completed their work quickly. Many
behavioral problems result from pointless idleness. Therefore, even if that
“thing” is simply talking quietly or reading, have something for students to do
when they are done. When you are considering the kinds of activities to fill that
time, keep in mind the principles: 1) when the student demonstrates success,
the teacher recognizes them with something positive; and 2) activity as a positive consequence, and inactivity as a negative consequence.
Therefore it is best not to give students either busy work or just let them
stand around. Encourage them to check their work. Have them help another
student. Let them complete other homework. Let them work on the computer, or
play an educational game, or drill. Give them an activity that says “great job
working hard to complete the task; as a result, you have the opportunity to get
better or help others get better in the following way.”
·
What will you do if the lesson takes
less time than you initially planned? Instead of stretching out the lesson and hindering the
momentum, or just letting the class hang out for the remaining time, use the
time to accomplish something meaningful. That may mean doing a mini-lesson on
something coming up tomorrow or after recess. It may mean playing a quick all-class
game to send the message that when the class works hard, they are rewarded with
something fun. It may mean getting out journals, getting into groups for a
discussion, or taking care of some unfinished business that has been waiting
for a block of time. It will be useful to put this contingency activity on your
lesson plan.
2.
Promoting the Level of Student Engagement
Reflect on your experience as a student. When you and the
other members of the class felt engaged in an activity, how much misbehavior
did you commonly notice? Conversely, when you felt a minimal level of
engagement did you and your classmates experience a temptation to find other,
less acceptable ways to entertain yourselves? Considering these questions
within the lens of students’ basic needs, we recognize that engaging lessons
are in most cases those that are more satisfying. Preparing an engaging lesson
also makes the statement that we care about student learning. The term
“engagement” is used rather broadly, and while we probably know it when we see
it, it may be useful to examine the idea of engagement more closely. When we
do, we find that it is related to the degree to which the students a) care
about the topic/activity, b) connect with the topic/activity, and c) feel
cognitively on the hook when involved in the activity.
Chapter Reflection 12-g: Recall a time when you felt engaged
in a learning activity. Did you care about it? Did you connect with it? What
did the teacher do to encourage these qualities?
Helping
Students Connect with the Material
If we were to observe a typical lesson being taught, it
would be common to see the following sequence of events: 1) The students begin
a lesson with hope and by being relatively engaged; 2) most students make an
effort to understand and invest in the activity; 3) over time if the lesson is
too conceptual, becomes tedious, lacks interest to the student, or is not
challenging enough, some students begin to get restless; 4) the teacher begins
to get negative as a result; and ultimately 5) the lesson descends into
dysfunction, and/or the teacher begins to engage in an increasing number of
disciplinary responses. While this is typical, it is entirely unnecessary and
is avoidable. The problem is not the students. The problem is merely the lesson
and/or lesson management.
To remedy this situation, we need to begin by asking
ourselves how we are going to help the students connect with the material or
activity. Does it relate to their lives? How can we connect it to their prior
knowledge? If it is conceptual, how can we make it concrete and practical? If
it is practical, how can we give it broader meaning? In an effort to help
students connect with the material, it will be helpful to consider
incorporating some or all of the following strategies.
1.
Anticipatory
Activities. We often lose sight of the fact that while we may
understand the material that we about to teach and have had the opportunity to
process it and connect it to our larger knowledge or skill schema, our students
will likely need some help putting their new learning into existing schema. So
instead of jumping right in and presenting new ideas, or demonstrating a new
skill, it will be effective to incorporate an anticipatory device to help set
the context for the new material. Two effective examples of these are
anticipatory sets and advanced organizers. Anticipatory sets are activities
that set the stage for the new material. They can be as simple as a question, a
prop, or a movie clip. They help the student connect with the idea in a more personal
or concrete manner, and so prepare them for the concepts to come. An advanced
organizer is a graphic depiction of a concept such as a diagram, a timeline, an
idea map, a table, or a chart. These help students create a pre-organization
for the material to come. They are especially useful when the content is highly
conceptual or lacks a context. Anticipatory activities help all students
process the coming material better and prevent a lot of “I don’t get it.”
2.
Match
Instructional Strategies to Content. If one uses the same
instructional methodology (e.g., direct instruction) for all content, it will
lead to problems with student engagement, and therefore more misbehavior. Just
as it works best to run on land, swim in water, and fly in the air, students
will feel most comfortable learning in a mode that best fits the material that
they are learning. In most cases that means learning skills through direct
instruction, concepts inductively, and facts within an applied context. When we
teach material in a manner that works counter to the way that the human brain
operates naturally, it produces frustration. We don’t expect our student to
swim everywhere, so why would we expect them to process all material with the
same instructional format?
3.
Providing
Directions in a Manner that Meets all Students’ Cognitive Needs. A good
portion of our students will have a different set of cognitive style
preferences than we will. It is common to find that after we have given
directions the students who are similar to us in style have understood, whereas
those who are on the other side of the cognitive style fence have not.
Therefore, when giving directions it will be helpful to make sure that we meet
all style needs. No matter our style, we need to be very intentional about making
sure that all the students understand the conceptual context, i.e., how the
lesson fits into the broader sequence of unit, why it is meaningful, and where
it is going in a general sense, as well as the practical aspects of the lesson,
i.e., what are the students supposed to do, what are the steps involved, and
what it will actually look like in the end.
4.
Inductive,
Problem-Based or Inquiry-Based Lessons. Many teachers fear teaching in a
manner in which they do not control the knowledge and/or content of the
discussion. Therefore they avoid using such strategies as “hands-on,” discovery
or inquiry-based learning. Much like the monkey who cannot get their hand out
of the jar because they refuse to let go of the apple, this effort at control
is likely to produce an undesirable outcome. The thought is that, “if I let the
students do hands-on/inductive learning, I will lose control, and bad things
will happen to my classroom management.” While quite like allowing students to
learn cooperatively (see Chapter 13), these strategies may require some
investment in helping the students discover how to approach learning in a more
investigative manner if it is unfamiliar to them. Over time the level of
engagement and the higher level of achievement will pay off in both learning
and behavioral results. Inductive learning has a built-in movement to it, is
inherently more engaging, and unlike direct instruction, there are no gaps in
instruction (where problem often arise), and off-task behavior is most often
overt and observable so there is little if any “checking out” on the part of
students.
Chapter Reflection
12-h: Research
suggests that the most significant predictor of a student dropping out is
academic performance (Hess 1987). Many dropouts leave school simply because the
work held no interest for them. In your assessment, how much of the drop-out
rate is related to ineffective instruction?
5.
High Participation Formats. Kounin (1970) found that high
participation formats encouraged student engagement. In his research, he
noticed that when teachers used instructional formats that allowed for the
highest portion of students to be involved, fewer students were off-task or
bored. These formats were contrasted to more passive forms of instruction such
as lecturing and procedures that include a lot of waiting in line or waiting
for one’s turn. In addition, high participation formats meet the learning style
needs of both the introverts and extroverts in the class. The extroverts are
energized by the collaborative element, and the introverts are provided an
opportunity to speak in a smaller more comfortable context.
6.
Formal Concept-Building Exercises. The use of formal
concept-building activities such as concept attainment can promote the concept
acquisition skills of all learners and are especially critical for students for
whom conceptual thinking is less natural. Formal concept attainment is the process of helping students
move inductively or deductively from the specifics of a concept to
generalizations. In an inductive approach a class is led through an exploration
of specific examples of a concept, followed by the generation of a definition,
and finally by the opportunity to use that definition to classify further
examples and non-examples. A variety of effective strategies for promoting
concept understanding exist. Survey the more concrete learners in the class and
they will likely tell you that when the material gets too conceptual and/or
abstract they get frustrated or feel like checking out. Formal concept-building
activities meet all students’ learning style needs. They are satisfying to the
abstract learners and provided a concrete step-by-step process for the more
practical learners.
7.
Project-Based Learning and Providing Opportunities
for Student to Put it All Together
Projects provide a number of
features that promote higher levels of engagement, motivation, and
satisfaction. In contrast to the teacher-led direct instruction lesson,
projects provide a natural momentum and context for synthesis. Students are
creating something that does not exist until they produce it. The goal of the
activity is concrete and built-in. Projects provide an opportunity for students
to “put it all together” in a way that surpasses most other modes of learning.
They afford countless places where students can relate previous knowledge to
their efforts.
In a project-based context,
students have the added motivation that comes from knowing that they are going
to show their completed effort to others. They own it. They are the experts.
They have concrete evidence of their effort that they can admire and feel proud
of in the end.
Chapter Reflection 12-i: Reflect on the many people whom you
have known who considered themselves poor students, yet thrived in a
project-based environment such as industrial arts, fine arts, drama, home
economics, athletics or auto mechanics. How would you describe the change in
their personality from the typical classroom context to their preferred
subject? Was there a change in their level of engagement, locus of control,
sense of competence? What implications do these stories have for us as
teachers?
Like inquiry based-learning and cooperative learning,
project-based learning may be new to some of your students. Therefore, you will
need to be patient and be very intentional about teaching the skills necessary
for them to succeed. It may be necessary to keep the students mindful of the
relationship in the class between acting responsible and being given greater
freedom and opportunity. Over time, the inherently more engaging and satisfying
nature of these learning strategies will provide the incentive necessary for
students to treat them with the respect they require.
The Ever
Essential Importance of Cultivating a Culture of Listening
The level of engagement in the class will be higher when we
have established a “culture of listening” (see Chapter 6), in which students
have become accustomed to being attentive and respectful and for expecting the
same from their peers. An integral part of the transformational classroom is a
progressively higher level of awareness on the part of its members. Listening,
engagement, and coming out of one’s ego centeredness are each intrinsically
motivating, however, this satisfaction is usually masked by or competing with
the students’ insecurities and mental conditioning (especially to flee the
present moment). We need to be intentional in our efforts to help students feel
secure and see the value in bringing their awareness outside their own “mental
noise.” One strategy that supports this goal is that of keeping students
cognitively on the hook.
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Interaction
Patterns that Keep Students Cognitively on the Hook
When I am in the field working directly with teachers, one
of the pieces of feedback that I give most regularly relates to the benefits of
keeping students “on the hook” cognitively. (Recall this idea was introduced in
Chapter 4, as it is best understood within the context of social/indirect
learning dynamics.) The way we manage our questioning and class discussions can
encourage either boredom or cognitive engagement. The difference between the
two is subtle and requires only minor adjustments in our teaching technique. To
achieve engagement, we first need to understand the dynamics and second, we need
to incorporate a few strategies to keep students cognitively on the hook. For
example, consider the following two scenarios:
Scenario
A: The teacher asks one student a closed-ended question
related to the topic. For example, “Josh, how many degrees are there in each
angle of an equilateral triangle?”

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Scenario B: The
teacher asks one student a closed-ended question, and then follows up with an
open-ended question to other students. For example, “Josh just said he thought
that there were 60 degrees in an equilateral triangle, do you agree with him?
And how do you think he came up with that answer?”
Chapter Reflection 12-j: Reflect
on these two situations. It is likely that you have experienced something such
as situation A many times as a student. When it was not your turn, where was
your mind? Did you feel accountable? Would you have felt more accountable in
the B scenario?
If we compare the two scenarios above within the dynamics of
social/indirect learning their differences become more apparent. In Scenario A,
The teacher (T) is interacting with the particular student (S) somewhat
exclusively. The rest of the members of the class (O) are essentially
spectators or largely “cognitively off the hook.” Over time, this interaction pattern
trains students to “check out” when it is not their turn. And very often when
they are relatively tuned in, they are not likely to be attending to the
cognitive processes that we desire. For example, it is more likely that they
are thinking something along the lines of “I wonder if Josh will get the answer
correctly?” or “Josh is one of the smarter students in the class, he should get
this right.” Attention to these questions does little to promote the goals of
our lesson.

There are many ways to bring all the students in the class
into cognitive processing. In Situation B, this was accomplished by simply
asking a follow-up open-ended process question. The result was that the
students were made to feel accountable and included in the interaction. With
this type of interaction students quickly learn that there is an expectation
that they will always need to be “cognitively on the hook.” Everything that is
said is part of a string of reasoning and reflection/meta-cognition, and one
may be asked at any part to step in and join the enterprise.
There are
several strategies to promote cognitive engagement. Some of these include:
Chapter Reflection 12-k: After reviewing the following actual
classroom scenario, assess the problems with the teacher’s lesson design as you
see it, and develop an alternative strategy that you feel would be more
effective.
Scenario: The teacher decided to teach a
lesson related to science to her group of first graders. The concept she was
teaching was sea versus land creatures. She created an excellent set of
hands-on materials including pictures of both sea and land creatures. She
divided the class into two lines and had the two groups compete. The student at
the front of each line was asked to classify the picture as either a land or
sea creature. The activity worked very well for about the first three students
at the front of each line. The classification aspect was very effective on many
levels. However, over time there were an increasing number of disruptions in
the back of each line, especially involving students who had already had their
turns. After fewer than half of the students had participated, the activity
deteriorated to the point where it had to be stopped.
Assume that the topic and
classification aspect of the activity are worth keeping. What would you do to
make the lesson work better, so that there is a greater level of engagement and
therefore fewer management issues?
3. Clarity of the Learning Targets
Reflect on
your anxiety level in the following two hypothetical situations:
1)
You are a passenger in a car and you do not know
where it is going or what the purpose of the trip is.
2)
You are a passenger in a car and you know where the
car is going and why you need to get there.
Given these two situations, it is likely that you would feel
more anxiety in the first. When we do not know where we are going, we feel
anxiety, and that anxiety will manifest itself somehow. Commonly, it takes the
form of frustration. In some case we might externalize that frustration
directly such as by asking “Where are we going?” And sometimes we might
displace our frustration into some form of disruptive of even destructive
behavior.
As Richard Stiggins (2001) suggests, “When students have
learning targets that are clear and standing still, they will reach them.” When
our students do not have a clear sense of where they are going or what it will
take to get there, they will be frustrated. Clear targets will contribute to
both better performance and better behavior. Moreover, it is useful to
recognize in our travel analogy above that the driver may have had a very good
sense of where the car was going and that would have helped keep him/her from
getting lost, but it would not have done much to remedy the passengers’ sense
of frustration.
We rarely relate the quality of the learning objectives that
we craft to the quality of the behavior in the class. But as we examine the
connection more closely it is probably stronger than we had considered. We may
have viewed the notion of writing the clear observable behavioral objectives as
simply a formality, or even a luxury. However, when we know the behavioral
outcome that we want to see, we are better teachers. And when we are better
teachers, everything in the class runs more effectively.
So what are good objectives? Good objectives are learning
targets that have been clearly and specifically stated, are as concrete as
possible and identify observable behavior and/or behavioral evidence of a
learning outcome. When we have sound knowledge of the skill, cognitive
operation, or what it looks like when the students can demonstrate that they
have mastered the idea, we possess a tool that will help us promote success.
Moreover, we are able to project and articulate that purpose to the students so
that they know where they are going and how they are going to get there. When
we know the topic that we are teaching but do not have clear learning outcomes,
our students are like the passenger in the car who does not know where they are
going or what the purpose of the trip is.
When we examine what most teachers write for objectives
(when they do write them at all), we could classify them into three basic types:
1) material to be covered, 2) completion of a task, and 3) cognitive or skill
behavioral outcome objectives. As you examine the examples of each type below,
consider the effectiveness of each to create effective learning targets that
are clear and standing still.
1.
“Material to be covered” objective.
Example: Cover page 34 and review for final.
2.
“Completion” type objectives.
Example: Learners will complete division problems and begin homework on
page 35.
3. “Cognitive behavioral outcome”
objective.
Example: Learners will 1) apply the process of division after it has
been modeled in class to problems with remainders, and 2) recognize what
remainders are, and be able to 3) explain the concept of remainders in their
own words and/or to peers.
You may be
saying, “I do both, and while I may not write the cognitive behavioral outcome
down, I know what it is.” That may be the case. Nevertheless, when I observe
teachers who have written completion objectives, in almost every case I see
completion being their focus, and when I observe teachers who have taken the
time to conceive and then write clear cognitive behavioral outcome objective, I
see a teacher who is looking for that
when they check the progress the class or any individual student is making
during the lesson. If you know what you are looking for, then it should not be
a lot of trouble to write it. So why not just take the extra 30 seconds to do
it?
Chapter Reflection
12-l: When you made
the effort to write out behavioral objectives for your lesson, do you find that
doing it was more difficult than you thought? What does that tell you? It may
be a useful reminder that we often make assumptions about how well we know what
we are trying to teach that may not be sound.
Why Does the Type of Objective
Affect Discipline?
When we
have our attention on learning goals rather than completion goals, it creates
significant differences in our teaching performance that will both directly and
indirectly influence the quality of our classroom management. Two of these
primary differences will be the following:
Chapter Reflection 12-m: Recall our discussion of basic
needs in Chapter 7. How many basic needs are being met by the fact that a lesson
has a clear sense of purpose? What happens when basic needs are not met? How
many management problems that you observe would you judge to be related to
students feeling a lack of purpose to their work?
Most teachers have come to recognize the many benefits of
using rubrics in their assessment. Some of those benefits are well established
and predicable. For example, when we compare one class that does not use
assignment rubrics with one that does, we find that the students in the class
where there is a rubric create consistently better quality products. However,
few teachers recognize the relationship between the use of rubrics and the
quality of the behavior in their classes. In fact, one could go so far as to
say that the relationship between one’s assessment choices and the effects on
student behavior is one of the most under-examined areas in education.
The
Benefits of Using Rubrics on Motivation and Classroom Management
·
Rubrics create another level of clarity to the
learning targets. In the example of the passenger in the car above, the rubric
is like a train or bus schedule. It puts the passenger in control of the trip.
The passengers only need to choose where they want to go.
·
A well-designed rubric can promote a greater degree
of internal locus of control and mastery-orientation in students. When students
have a rubric in hand that clearly spells out what constitutes a quality
process, it contributes to each students’ success being more a result of their
investment in the process as opposed to their ability. This leads to the
students’ needs for power and competence being met to a greater degree, and as
a result there are fewer incidents in which students misbehave in the attempt
to get those needs satisfied.
·
Clear rubrics contribute to a reduced need on the
part of the students to ask questions, which gives the teacher more time to
teach rather than constantly re-explain. Moreover, since rubrics create less
ambiguity, there are fewer cases where students miss the target and feel the
need to make excuses.
·
Rubrics support reliability within the assessment.
Reliability leads to a sense of trust and fairness in the process. When
students feel that the process of assessment is fair they are less likely to
translate poor evaluations into hostility, resentment and revenge. The fact is
that many students perceive the assessment process to be personal--about how
much the teacher likes them or about how “good” they are. Rubrics bring
objectivity to the process, and therefore an element of fairness.
·
Similar to clear
behavioral objectives, rubrics provide the clarity that helps meet the learning
style needs of both the sequential and random learners in the class. Sequential Learners thrive on a transparent structure and well-articulated goals, and
experience a loss of motivation and focus in the presence of a high level of
ambiguity, too many changes, or a learning program that seems arbitrary. It is
not uncommon for the Sequential Learner to interpret the lack of clarity in the
class as evidence of incompetence in the teacher, whereas the Random Learners are much more
comfortable in an environment including flexibility and situational
adjustments, and as such are less concerned with drawing inside the lines, if
those lines are seen as inessential. When Random Learners’ creatively
interpreted efforts are met with a poor assessment by the teacher due to
unclear learning targets, the result can be discouragement and tentativeness in
future efforts
·
Rubrics enable us to better include process aspects
of the product, performance or skill into our assessment system. The benefits
of doing this will be discussed in the next section.
Portfolios can have many of the same motivational benefits
as rubrics, and while they may not accomplish the same level of reliability,
they do promote the students’ internal locus of control. Portfolios provide a
concrete archive of the students’ growth over time and therefore offer a
practical reminder that learning is about application rather than merely
aptitude.
4. Value and Providing Incentives for Students to Invest in
the Process
When we place value on the process whether formally or
informally, we put the power in the hands of the students. The result is a
significant effect on the quality of behavior and motivation. This effect is
related to the following causes:
·
When we emphasize the process we encourage the basic
needs of power and competence, and promote an internal locus of control and
mastery-orientation.
·
When students view success as coming from their
investment in the process they are more likely to invest and make the effort.
When they view success as being related to innate ability, few students are
motivated, while most take on an attitude of resignation. That resignation is a
killer of motivation and breeds compensation in the form of misbehavior.
Contrastingly, value for the process has the effect of being empowering.
·
When students put their attention on the process
rather than the end result, a series of smaller more immediate goals emerge.
Instead of looking at the end result that is being asked for and feeling
intimidated, overwhelmed, or the desire to procrastinate, attention to the
process shifts the students’ attention to the “now” --what is important now? “What small goal do I need to
attend to at this time?” This is strategy is especially valuable for students
who have short attention spans or ADHD.
·
When students get into the flow of attending to the
process, activities take on a natural movement and momentum.
Chapter Reflection 12-n: Reflect on why when we put our
attention on the process it tends to produces a natural psychological movement
to our effort. It may be illuminating to incorporate the lens of the three
elements of “success psychology” in this exercise.
Some of the ways that we can encourage students to put their
attention into the process include:
·
Formally
or informally assessing process outcomes. When we formally assess process
aspects of the assignment and then include them in the grade, we make the
statement that the process is valuable in a real and material way. This idea
and a process for creating an assessment system are explained in detail in
Chapter 21.
·
Giving
process feedback to students. Instead of giving praise or general
feedback, make the effort to give positive recognitions of student process
related performance. For example, instead of the saying, “The answers look
good, well done!” it would be more effective to say, “I see you taking the time
to outline your thoughts before you write, smart idea!”
·
Using
Process Workshops. When we ask students to write a paper, create a
product, produce a presentation, or perform any other complex task, we can
encourage process investment by breaking the process down into workshop stages.
This can be done for individual or group products. An example of an individual
product development series is that for writer’s workshop. The five steps in
Writer’s Workshop Process are the following:
o
Prewriting
o
Drafting
o
Revising
o
Editing
o
Publishing
In the next chapter we will examine a workshop process for a
cooperative group effort.
When we commit to valuing and providing incentives for
students to invest in the process, we will observe evidence over time that
students are responding. Indications of this include:
·
Observing a higher level of student investment from
start to finish.
·
Noticing that students are displaying faith in the
process rather than taking short cuts or procrastinating.
·
Recognizing that students feel freer to take risks
and innovate. Many teachers hold the misconception that to encourage
innovation, it is best to give students a blank canvas. This may appear to be a
reasonable assumption, but in most cases, it produces less creativity than it
does intimidation, and most often results in the majority of students simply
reproducing the efforts of one of their peers. Whereas in most cases, process
guidelines provide support and tools for the creative process.
Chapter Reflection 12-o: What have you found that promotes
your creative process? Survey a few others, and note what they say as well.
What do your findings say about the kinds of strategies that you would want to
employ to promote the creative efforts of your students?
5. Relevant and Meaningful Curriculum
The book (and movie by the same title) Freedom Writers is a very effective portrayal of the true story of
one class of students and their teacher Erin Gruwell. When Gruwell arrived she
found a group of students who functioned poorly as a collective, had a very low
level of motivation, had what could best be described as a fundamentally
failure-based psychology. Moreover the students resisted her initial efforts as
they viewed her as an outsider. As the movie effectively portrays, over time
Gruwell profoundly changed the dynamics and psychology in the class. When one
examines what caused the transformation, two factors stand out. First, Gruwell
instilled in her students a sense that she believed in them and cultivated a
success psychology within the class. Second, she made a commitment to finding
material that was meaningful and relevant to her students’ lives.
I have been to the school in which the events of the movie
took place and many others like it. And for every teacher such as Gruwell,
there are countless others who take a 4-Style teacher approach. They mistakenly
trust that being strict enough, expelling enough students, and shaming students
sufficiently will get results. These 4-Style teachers succeed mostly at
confirming the students’ negative identity and adding to the staggering
percentage of students who drop out of school. In fact, if one’s goals were
simply a better controlled class and fewer discipline problems, the path of
Gruwell and those like her will be more effective than being a 4-Style teacher in
the end. Most students drop out as a result of feeling that the curriculum had
no interest or value to them (Hess, 1987; Woods, 1995). A student who does not
care about what they are learning is a student who has little to lose. Threats
of a poor grade or suspension have little power over a student who thinks
school is a waste of time.
I have yet to meet a student who did not desire a meaningful
curriculum or a student who did not respond to being in a class where the
curriculum was engaging, meaningful and relevant to their lives. In our
research conducted in high schools, we commonly observe groups of students who
act unmotivated, disruptive and disrespectful one period, and engaged,
responsible, and respectful of others the next. The difference between the two
can be explained in most cases by the curriculum that the teachers in each
class were using (Shindler, Jones, Taylor & Cadenas, 2003).
Some of the ways that we can make our curriculum more
meaningful have been examined earlier in this chapter. Instructional strategies
that engage us become inherently more meaningful, so it is impossible to
separate the two. For example, strategies such as inductive learning,
cooperative learning, and project-based learning all have the potential to make
any material more meaningful. If we were to explore various classrooms we would
find countless ways that teachers create meaningful learning experiences. A few
examples include:
·
Using culturally relevant materials such as literature
that relates to students’ personal experience.
·
Getting to know your students’ interests, gifts and
making the effort to connect material to them.
·
Finding ways to make learning applied to practical
applications that students may ultimately currently make use of in the future.
·
Teaching science in an inductive and hands-on manner.
·
Having students write their own goals (especially
useful in P.E.).
·
Have students lead their own conferences (i.e.,
student-led conferences).
·
Having students take part in service learning
projects.
·
Having students take part in Facing History and
Ourselves curriculum.
·
Having students do ethnographic studies of their
families and communities.
·
Including a unit of community (K-6).
·
Letting students choose books and topics that relate
to their interests.
·
Relating curriculum to current events.
Chapter Reflection 12-p: On a piece of paper you are
encouraged to brainstorm ideas from your experience or that you have found
online and continue this list of ways to make the curriculum more meaningful
and relevant from things that you have observed
Succeeding
with Students of Different Ability Levels and Learning Styles Through the Use
of Differentiated Curriculum
Meeting the needs of all students
is a daunting challenge. There are few teachers who do not feel at least a
little guilty that their curriculum is not meeting all of their students’
needs. One solution is to provide differential learning experiences for
students depending on their needs and abilities. While this approach can encourage
higher levels of success for many students, especially those at the high and
low ends of the ability level, it requires a substantial investment of time and
energy on the part of the teacher. For this reason, it may be prudent to invest
in strategies that meet the needs of all learners first, and then supplement
with individualized strategies as necessary. Effectively executing the
strategies in the first four sections of this chapter will promote success with
more students more of the time, making differentiation less necessary. However,
to provide the necessary support for many of our learners, we will want to find
ways to: 1) differentiate instruction for different ability levels; and 2)
teach for the success of students of all learning styles.
Succeeding
with Students of Different Ability Levels
Many behavioral problems are rooted in work that is either
too challenging or not challenging enough for some students. When the work is
viewed as too difficult, students may quit and seek out other means to meet
their need for competence met (e.g., acting out, getting attention, bullying,
acting helpless, blaming others, etc.). This is especially common for students
who have developed what Dweck refers to as a “helpless pattern” (see Chapter
8). On the other hand, when the work lacks a sufficient degree of challenge,
some students will become bored. In many cases the greatest behavioral
challenges will be gifted and talented students who want a greater level of
stimulation, and not finding it in the curriculum, they attempt to find it
through other means (e.g., challenging our authority, rebellion, reinventing
assignments, or picking and choosing when to tune in and when to check out).
Chapter Reflection 12-q: How do you act when you feel like a task
is too difficult? How do you act when you feel a task is too simple? Do you
find yourself compensating in some way? What compensatory behaviors have you
observed others use?
Succeeding
with Students with Different Cognitive/Learning Styles
When we
know our own cognitive/learning style preferences, we are less predictable and
have another tool to keep from being unconscious of our default tendencies.
When we know our students’ cognitive/learning preferences, we have a window
into how they learn best, how they tend to process information and the kinds of
learning contexts in which they will likely thrive and those that they will
find challenging. This knowledge is power. In our hands, this knowledge offers
a glimpse into the human learning owner’s manual. When we share it with our
students, we give them a gift of empowerment for their own growth as a learner.
In
Appendix X, the reader will find an abbreviated version of the Paragon Learning
Style Inventory, and Appendix X offers a more extensive treatment into
succeeding with students of Different Types.
Successfully Teaching Across Type
Once we
have become acquainted with our style and those of our students, we will want
to turn our attention to how our teaching can promote the success of students of
all learning styles. To this end it will first be useful to keep in mind that
we will be more successful with all students if we use strategies that were
described earlier in the chapter. These strategies are effective in part
because they work for students on both sides of each cognitive dimension. Next
we need to recognize that no matter how well we know our own preferences and
default tendencies it will be helpful to be intentional about making sure that
the students on the side of each cognitive fence are getting their needs met.
While we may not personally understand why students on the other side of a
dimension have a particular set of needs, we can certainly show an appreciation
that they do have such needs. Most teachers find that considering the requirements
of those on both sides of the fence makes them better teachers as well as more
well-rounded human beings. Table 12.1 outlines a sample of ideas to consider
when teaching students with opposing preferences.
Introverts teaching Extroverts
|
Extroverts teaching Introverts |
|
·
Use
group work and cooperative learning ·
Use
wait time with questioning ·
Provide
time for movement ·
Value
expression |
·
Provide
individual tasks ·
Call
on all students regularly ·
Provide
written venues for thinking ·
Value
reflection |
|
Sensates/Concretes teaching
Intuitives/Abstracts |
Intuitives/Abstracts teaching
Sensates/Concretes |
|
·
Provide
opportunities for creativity ·
Give
students the “big picture” of their work ·
Use
concept attainment and problem-based strategies on occasion ·
Teach
inductively on occasion ·
Don’t
overemphasize the details |
·
Provide
hands-on activities ·
Give
clear step-by-step directions ·
Explain
the practical application to work ·
Avoid
long abstract or theoretical lectures ·
Value
the quality of students’ work |
|
Judgers/Sequentials teaching
Perceivers/Randoms |
Perceivers/Randoms teaching
Judgers/Sequentials |
|
·
Allow
for some flexibility in assignment format ·
Use
variety ·
Provide
clear written assignment guidelines ·
Allow
for flexible time frames for completion ·
Value
novelty and open-mindedness |
·
Provide
clear written assignment guidelines ·
Prepare
students for changes in plans ·
Try
to keep to the agreed upon schedule ·
Provide
some routine in the day ·
Value
accuracy and punctuality |
Provide opportunities for students to work in their
strengths areas for some part of the overall learning experience.
All students need to spend some part of each lesson or day working
to their strengths. While we may not have opportunities to provide different
assignments for students depending on their learning style, nor would this be
necessarily desirable, we can make sure that students have had the opportunity
to work in their strength area at least some of the day. When students are
forced to work in an uncomfortable mode for a prolonged period of time, we can
expect a reaction. While this reaction will look different for different
learning style types, it will appear in the form of distress. Table 12.2
briefly outlines the four possible student academic profiles (e.g.,
extrovert/concrete, extrovert/abstract, introvert/concrete, and
introvert/abstract) and some of the needs of each type.
Table 12.2: Learning Profiles of each of the Four Academic
Type Combinations
|
|
Extroverts (E) |
Introverts (I) |
|
Sensates
(S)/Concrte Learners |
ES's/Extroverted
Concrete Learners Action
Oriented Realists (@35%) Let
me work with my hands and create something practical. Some people may call me
a “kinesthetic” learner, but I would rather call myself a “doer.” I like to
be part of a team and see practical results from my/our work. I have a strong
need to contribute and be recognized. Don’t just explain how to do something
to me, at least show me, and better yet, let me try it out. I learn from
doing and then reflecting on what I have done. If you want me to understand
an abstraction let me discover it inductively, or I can have a difficult time
integrating it into a big picture understanding. Written directions can be
really helpful to me. If you expect me to continually sit and listen to a
lecture and then do well on a test later, I will likely disappoint you much
of the time. |
IS's/Introverted
Concrete Learners Thoughtful
Realists (@25%) Let me work independently
on tasks that are clearly spelled out. Let me work with facts and information
and I will be able to use my power of insightful realism to come to sound,
well thought-out conclusions. Give me a chance to be careful and thoughtful.
I will be your most dependable and steady student if you give me work where
the directions are clear and the desired outcome is understood beforehand.
Give me recognition for my care and persistence since those are my strengths
and I may not draw as much attention to myself as some of the other students.
When you give vague careless directions or just expect me to “be creative”
with no guidelines, I will likely feel some uneasiness and maybe even some
resentment. |
|
Intuitives
(N)/Abstract Learners |
EN's/Extroverted
Abstract Learners Action
Oriented Innovators (@25%) Let
me work in situations where I can use my communications skills in my learning.
If I am working in a group where there are chances to be creative, I can get
really motivated. I am a much better student when I am “into the task” as
opposed to when I am “not into the task.” I like to be inspired and see the
purpose behind the work. I have an expressive energy that comes out when I am
comfortable, and it helps me draw out my creativity and make connections
across content. Talking, discussing, role-playing, debating are natural ways
for me to tap that energy source. Peer tutoring a subject that I am good at
is one of my favorite things to do. Projects where I can solve problems and
draw energy from working with others and overcoming challenges are also areas
where I feel very confident. When there are too many details, routines, lectures
or the same old thing all the time, I may turn my creative energies into
behavior that you may not like. |
IN's/Introverted
Abstract Learners Thoughtful
Innovators (@15%) Let
me work in situations where I can come up with my own ideas whenever possible.
I don’t have as much trouble as some of the other students in being creative.
I am often surprised when I see that I sometimes see deeper realities that
other students miss. I like to come up with stories, draw pictures, or think
of new ways of doing something. Some people call me a “visual learner” but I
just feel more comfortable studying something for a while and understanding
how it works before I try to do it or talk about it. I will be the last to
volunteer usually, but I will work to master it long after the other students
have moved on to something else. I need to be able make connections with the
current subject and the previous subjects, so let me know the purpose behind
what we are doing before you tell me what to do. If you ask me to do work
that is pointless, inconsistent, or irrelevant then you will probably see me
become at least a bit cynical and/or irreverent. |
Chapter Reflection 12-r: Locate your own style in table 12.2
above. Does the description accurately characterize your academic tendencies?
Now find the style opposite you. Do you have difficulty empathizing with
students of this type? What implications does this have for your teaching?
Examining the Relationship between
Assessment and Management
Many
teachers make the mistake of viewing assessment as a disconnected event that
occurs after the learning has taken place. When we examine the effects of
assessment on classroom behavior as well as the learning process, we find that
it has a powerful effect. For example, if we were to reflect on our own
experience as a student, we will recall that how we were assessed influenced
our experience to a great extent. One
could say that what and how we assess will define “what is success” in a very
real and material way for our students. Therefore it will be useful to keep
the following principles in mind.
·
Never make grades public or use
assessment for comparison purposes. When we assess the quality of our students’ work in
relation to clear learning targets, we promote internal locus of control and
mastery orientation. Contrastingly, when we grade on a curve, or make public
comparisons, we make the statement that grades are partly about learning and
also partly about rewarding or shaming students. These emotions tap into the
student’s fear of failure and encourage their helpless orientation in addition
to damaging the relationship of trust they have with us as the teacher.
Similarly, when we make grades public, we make the statement that each
student’s achievement is something related to other students’ achievement. As
we examine that dynamic more closely, we will discover that there is never a
case where there is value to comparing one student’s achievement to that of
another. It is a strategy that fails as both a motivational as well as an
instructional device.
Chapter Reflection 12-s: Reflect on the following classroom
scenario. The teacher has just completed an effective lesson in which they have
helped students of all ability levels understand and successfully complete a
series of math problems. Some students are able to do all of the problems
successfully, while others have only been able to complete a few, but are
encouraged that they get the idea and feel confident of their ability in the
future. At this point how do the students feel about their performance and
their relationship with the teacher? Next, the teacher takes out the grade book
and asks each student to state their score out of 10. The student begin to
report one at a time, “4,” “5,” “10,” “2,” “7,” etc. Now how do the students
feel about themselves and their relationship with their teacher?
·
Assess process whenever possible
(but it needs to be done effectively). As discussed previously in the chapter, assessing process
and other areas over which the student has 100% control promotes the students’
internal locus of control and mastery orientation. Therefore assessing behavior
in the form of participation, process, cooperation, lab work, and/or effort can
have a positive impact on the classroom performance as well as behavior.
However, if this assessment process is not done systematically, it will do more
harm than good. For example, if one uses a random and subjective process to
give 10% of each student’s grade for participation points, it will be work
against both your management and motivational goals. It will most often be
viewed by the students as a power play and another way to reward favorites. A
step-by-step explanation for the development of a sound and effective process
for assessing participation and/or process is outlined in Chapter 21.
·
Give students as much control as
possible over their assessment information. Do not make grades and/or your evaluation of their
progress a mystery. Ask yourself the question, “Who is assessment for?” When
students have information they have power. When they know where they stand,
what it takes to hit the target becomes clearer.
·
Use assessment methods that match
your instructional methods. If we encourage process thinking, cooperation, and other more
authentic outcomes, but do not assess them, we make the statement that they are
not valuable. Students will invest in that which we assess. Our assessment
choices will send a message that is many times more powerful than our words. So
if we assess by primarily tests and worksheets, students will quickly decide
that the other (more authentic) outcomes in the class are rather meaningless.
Chapter Reflection 12-t: Complete the sentence, “The five
most important things that I want my student to learn in my class are ________
.” Reflect on your list. Are you currently (or planning on) assessing those
things? Everything can be assessed. Go to Appendix X if you want help related
to how to assess more complex and/or authentic outcomes.

Matching
Pedagogical and Managerial Styles
“Can I be a 2-Style manager and a 1-Style instructor, or be
a 1-Style manager but rely mostly on teacher-centered instruction?” It is
possible to mix and match practices from different orientations into one’s
class. But there is a cost to having incoherence and/or a lack of integrity in
your methods. The pedagogy described in this chapter will promote the shift
within students from passive consumers to active learners. Empowering students
with pedagogy that puts them in control of their learning and validates their
judgment and ability will foster their capacity to be successful within a
self-responsible 1-Style classroom structure. However, it will also likely make
them less willing to blindly follow directions without seeing their value. On
the other hand, if one wants to use a 1-Style management approach but insists
on teaching with a heavily teacher-directed style, they will send mixed messages
that will ultimately undermine their ability to be successful in bringing about
management goals. Achieving a 1-Style classroom will require a substantial
commitment to creating a self-responsible, empowered, needs-satisfied group of
students. Incorporating both pedagogical and managerial strategies that promote
these goals will act synergistically to bring about a more effective 1-Style
classroom more quickly.
Journal Reflections
1.
Reflect
on the research of Jean Anyon et al discussed earlier in the chapter. In your
experience do you see a differential curriculum and set of classroom management
practices used for students of different socio-economic classes? If so, what do
you think are the main factors that contribute to the differences?
2.
List
two instructional practices that you use currently (or have seen others use)
that you feel qualify as creating a psychology of success and/or meet students’
basic needs. Then list two practices that you use currently (or have seen
others use) that you feel would be better to stop practicing.
Chapter Activities
1.
Discuss
your answers to Chapter Reflection 12-a within your group.
Reflect on the schools that you have observed. Would
you say that you have found a relationship between the socio-economic status of
the area in which schools are located and the curriculum and instruction at the
school? How would you explain your findings?
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2.
Discuss
your answers to Chapter Reflection 12-b within your group.
Teachers who do ___________ pedagogically have fewer
classroom management problems.
3.
Incorporate
your thinking regarding the relationships among instruction, assessment and
classroom management and discipline into your Classroom Management Plan or
Classroom Improvement Plan. It may be helpful to include answers to item to #2
in addition to the following questions:
·
What do
you do instructionally to meet students’ academic needs?
·
What do
you do instructionally to prevent students’ need to act out?
·
How does
your assessment promote the goals of your management?
·
How do
you allow for variable styles, cultures and circumstances in meeting the
diverse needs of your students?
References:
Anyon, J.
(1981) Social Class and School Knowledge. Curriculum Inquiry, Vol. 11, No. 1 pp.
3-42
Hess, G. A., Jr.; Well,
E.; Prindle, C.; Liffman, P.; and Kaplan, B. (1987) 'Where's Room 185?' How
Schools Can Reduce Their Dropout Problem." Education and Urban Society Vol. 19 No. 3 pp. 330-355.
Kounin, J.
(1970). Discipline and Group Management
in Classrooms.
Lawrence, G. (1987). Teachers Types and Tiger Stripes.
Consulting Psychologists Press.
Shindler,
J. (2005) Teaching Across type. Five
Principles for Succeeding With Students of Different Learning Styles.
Available from Paragon Educational Consulting,
Stiggins R.
(2001) Student Involved Classroom Assessment. 3rd Ed. Prentice Hall.
Tobin, K., (1987) The Role of Wait
Time in Higher Cognitive Level Learning
Review of Educational Research,
Vol. 57, No. 1 pp. 69-95
Woods G. (1995) Reducing the Dropout Rate. School
Improvement Research Series. NWREL.