TCM Table of Contents – Classroom Management Resources – School Climate – John Shindler – TCM Workshops

Chapter 11: Transformative Classroom Instruction and the Pedagogy–Management Connection

From Transformative Classroom Management. By John Shindler. ©2009

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In this Chapter:

• Exploring the Socio-Political Foundations of Instructional Inequity

· Five Key Areas Where Pedagogical Choices Affect Management Outcomes

• Effectiveness of Lesson Preparation, Organization and Mechanics
• Level of Engagement
• Clarity of the Learning Targets
• Degree to which there is Incentive for Students to Invest in the Process
• Degree to which the Curriculum is Relevant and Meaningful
• Teaching and Managing Students with Different Abilities and Learning Styles
• Examining the Relationship between Assessment and Management
• Matching Instructional and Managerial Styles

Our greatest asset in our effort to promote high quality classroom management outcomes will be how and what we teach, as classroom management and instruction are inherently interrelated (Gettinger & Kohler, 2006; Munk & Repp, 1994). As depicted in Figure 11.1, what and how we teach, what and how we assess, and how we manage our class will all systemically affect one another. When we perform effectively in one area the other two will benefit, and when we engage in practices that are ineffective in one area, the other two will suffer as well (Munk & Repp,1994).

Figure 11.1. The Inter-related Factors in the Teaching Process

Research into classroom effectiveness finds that in almost every case, classrooms with management, behavioral and motivational problems tend to be characterized by the use of instructional strategies that fail to promote engagement and/or are insufficiently “needs satisfying” (Shindler et al, 2003). In fact, the problems that resulted from the use of certain instructional choices were highly predictable. Where certain kinds of problems were found, there were correlating teaching choices. In contrast, when certain instructional techniques were employed by the teacher, disciplinary concerns were dramatically reduced. When the relationship between pedagogical choices and the types and quantity of management issues that teachers face was examined, it was evident that each pedagogical choice was either contributing to or undermining the ability of the teacher to accomplishing their goals.

Making Wise Pedagogical Choices Can Either Promote or Hinder the Ability to Meet Each of the Following Goals:

• Reducing management problems. Pedagogy that fails to meet students’ basic needs will lead to management problems. Engaging, satisfying, well-directed, meaningful instructional activities can render misbehavior unnecessary (Gettinger, 1995; Gettinger & Kohler, 2006; Glasser, Shindler et al., 2003).

• Promoting a psychology of success. As discussed in Chapter 7, each pedagogical action is either promoting or detracting from a student’s psychology of success (e.g., internal locus of control, sense of acceptance and belonging, and mastery-orientation). Those that promote it will lead to a healthier classroom and those that detract from it will lead to higher levels of dysfunction, behavioral problems, and student drop-out (Hess, 1987; Shindler, 2003; Woods 1995).

• Acting as a transformative agent. Each of us is being changed continuously by what and how we learn. In some cases change is subtle while in others it is significant. For some, change leads to limiting beliefs and/or dysfunctional behavior. For some, change leads to empowerment and personal growth. What are our students learning as a result of their learning?

· That knowledge is static and simply academic or is co-constructed and a source of power?

· How to stick to thinking that is safe so as to protect their egos and narrow construct of what is familiar or how to take risks and develop an intrinsic love of learning?

· To be resigned to a lot in life to which they feel they are limited or transcend their life circumstances and class barriers and become agents of change?

Exploring the Socio-Political Foundations of Instructional Inequity

It is no surprise that teaching practices vary greatly from school to school; however, it is remarkable just how much this variation is related to the socio-economic status of the students in the school (Anyon, 1981; Duke, 2000; Hayes & Deyhle 2001). Anyon et al. (1981) discovered that in a significant proportion of cases, the kind of teaching found in a school and the class of the students was correlated. She found that in working class schools the work was characterized by an emphasis on following rules, directions and getting the task done. Conformity was encouraged and there was little explanation for purpose of work. Work was most often worksheet-driven and did not promote critical thinking. In these working class schools the emphasis was most commonly on rote and routine.

In middle class schools Anyon observed that there was a greater emphasis on critical thinking; however, the purpose of learning was mostly defined by getting good grades and right answers. Students’ interests were taken into account in the curriculum and management, but creativity was only somewhat encouraged.

In affluent professional and executive elite schools there was found to be a much greater emphasis on student empowerment. Students were significantly involved in the decision-making process and there was a deliberate attempt to make the learning meaningful and related to real life. Students’ sense of self-responsibility and self-directedness was promoted. Management was more defined by reasoning than rules.

Figure 11.1: Typical Teaching Practices found in Schools of Various Socio-economic Levels (Anyon, 1981)

Working-Class School

· Emphasis on following directions

· Little explanation for purpose of work

· Worksheet-driven

· Get task done, not promote critical thinking

· Conformity

· Routine and rote preparation

Middle-Class School

· Get right answers

· Get good grades

· Focus on text rather than student interests

· Little creativity

· Getting into college

Affluent Professional School

· Encourage student self-expression

· Apply their learning to real life

· Negotiations between teacher and students

· Foster decision-making skills

· Promote a sense of responsibility for one’s learning

Executive Elite School

· Develop analytic skills

· Make judgments about the best answer

· Independent project-driven

· Reasoning instead of rules

· Promote self-directedness and self-confidence

· Preparation for life of leadership

Chapter Reflection 11-a: Reflect on schools you have observed. Have you seen a relationship between the socio-economic status of the schools’ areas and the curriculum and instruction at the school? How would you explain your findings?

Keep your notes to use for the Chapter Activity at the end of the chapter.

When presented with the findings of this research few of my students are surprised, yet their reactions vary. Many react with resentment and indignation. Occasionally students deny the validity of the research. Quite often students who have experienced what Anyon characterizes as a working class education feel that they were penalized educationally as a result of growing up in less affluent areas -- in other words, they feel they were cheated. Consequently this leads to the tendency to assign blame. One could say that there is a lot of blame to go around (e.g., society, the economic system, parents, policy makers, etc). While the political implications of this research are profound and incendiary, few of us in the teaching profession are in a position to make wholesale changes to the systemic realities that contribute to inequity in our schools. Nonetheless, we are in a position to change the lives of those in our classes. We can change the equation for the students with whom we come in contact on a daily basis -- by what and how we teach. In fact, we are the most powerful factor in the equation. In a very real and concrete manner we are determining the future of our students by our pedagogical choices.

THE PEDAGOGY-MANAGEMENT CONNECTION

Each quarter, the first thing I do with my students during the class meeting dealing with the relationship between pedagogy and management is ask them to take a few minutes and (from their experience) fill in the blank in the following sentence:

Teachers who do _________ (pedagogically) have fewer management problems.

The ideas generated are consistently valid and insightful. This is no surprise, given that most of us can recall teachers who, because of how and what they taught, experienced few management problems. Conversely, we can usually remember more than a few teachers who because of their instructional style and choices found themselves dealing with management issues on a perpetual basis. As you read further in this chapter, you may recognize practices used by these enviable and unenviable role models.

Chapter Reflection 11-b: From your observations, what instructional choices lead to fewer management problems? It may be helpful to recall teachers you have observed who have been so successful at getting students to learn that their classes have fewer than average discipline issues, as well as teachers who as a result of how they teach seem to have more discipline issues than most. Save your answers for Chapter Activity #2 at the end of the chapter.

As we examine the effects of various teaching choices and practices, it is interesting to find that those who produce effective learning outcomes also produce a desirable effect on classroom management and discipline. These practices can be separated into the following five key areas:

1. Effectiveness of Lesson Preparation, Organization and Mechanics
2. Level of Student Engagement
3. Clarity of Learning Targets
4. Degree to which there is Value and Incentive for Students to Invest in the Process
5. Degree to which the Curriculum is Relevant and Meaningful to Students

1. Effectiveness of Lesson Preparation, Organization and Mechanics

Much of our success as teachers will be related to our effectiveness with the many practical aspects of managing a lesson (Gettinger & Kohler, 2006; Good & Brophy, 2000; Harris, 1998;). Difficulties with these small things can add up to substantial problems. Kounin (1970), in his examination of effective teachers, noticed that those who used certain instructional strategies had fewer incidents of misbehavior. He found that most misbehavior was the result of poor teacher planning and execution. He concluded from his research that it was better to be proactive than reactive when it came to classroom management.

Kounin observed that there were explicable areas in the technical act of teaching that contributed to more or fewer behavioral problems. One of the fundamental qualities that Kounin observed in good teachers was what he termed “with-it-ness,” in other words, being aware of what is going on in the class, or even having metaphorical eyes in the back of one’s head. If you are one of those who feels lacking in with-it-ness (i.e., you feel that you miss social cues and are often unaware of the moods or mischief in the room), you may find teaching more frustrating than you originally conceived. However, you can be successful if you learn to develop the skills related to technical management (see Chapter 11) and effective lesson management described here.

Chapter Reflection 11-c: Reflect on your level of “with-it-ness.” Would you say that you have a great deal -- you have a good sense of what is going on, even though unseen? Or do you often miss the cues and moods on the class? It is useful to note that some degree of with-it-ness will be related to intentional factors, while some portion will be innate (i.e., related to one’s level of field-dependence or independence). Field-independent teachers can be highly successful. However, whereas the field-dependent teacher with more natural with-it-ness may find management a relatively natural skill, the more field-independent teacher may need to accept that it will take a bit more intention and skill development.

Kounin (1970) found that teachers who were most successful were effective in their management of the technical aspects of the lesson. These aspects included maintaining the students’ attention, cues to alert the group to necessary information, and ways to foster accountability throughout the class. He also found that teachers who were able to manage the lesson mechanics had fewer problems. He broke this area into four separate skills -- overlapping, managing movement, momentum, and smoothness. Overlapping is the skill of being able to attend to two or more things at once. Managing movement is the skill of creating effective transitions and procedures. Momentum relates to the ability to keep the lesson flowing without stops and starts, disruptions, or discontinuity. Smoothness is the ability to create ease and clarity in the lesson and avoid jerkiness and confusion. Kounin found that when the lesson was orchestrated effectively it led to more on-task behavior and less misbehavior resulting from student frustration and confusion. In addition, it should be noted that an effectively managed lesson also makes the statement that the teacher cares and takes their role as the classroom leader seriously. So while on the practical level a well-managed lesson promotes efficiency, on an affective level it also promotes the bond between the teacher and students.

When reflecting on teachers whose pedagogy contributed to fewer management problems, you probably found that they exhibited some common skills and intentions. Those teachers whom you judged to be highly effective lesson managers were most likely: a) prepared on a consistent basis, b) tuned into the class, and c) had effective strategies for dealing with lesson momentum and timing.

1. Be Prepared. Very simply, preparation, while not insuring success, will certainly make it more probable (Good & Brophy, 2000; Munk & Repp, 1994). Conversely, when we are ill-prepared or are asked to teach with a limited opportunity to prepare, most often we experienced a disproportionate number of management problems (Munk & Repp, 1994). It would be nice if this were not the case. Time is difficult to find in the teaching profession and finding the motivation to prepare is often challenging. Yet common sense -- as well as the misery experienced as a result of those days in which we tried to “wing it” unsuccessfully -- tells us that taking the time to prepare is worth it. Reflect on how you act when you are less prepared. Commonly, with less preparation one tends to act more tentatively, use more words, pause to think more often, to experience and project indecisiveness, change one’s mind more often, and to be more likely to project weakness and fear. The result is what Kounin refers to as a lack of smoothness and momentum.

Chapter Reflection 11.d: Recall situations in which you have been asked to teach or present when you were not prepared. How did you feel? What was the pervasive emotion? Also, recall where your awareness tended to go. Was it more focused on yourself (self-consciousness) than usual?

2. Be Tuned in and Aware. Bring to mind the image of a master teacher you have observed. Where would you judge their attention to be: the lesson? themselves? or the students? In most cases, a master teacher will be tuned in and aware of the students. It is very natural and common for new teachers to put their focus on the lesson plan and “teach the lesson.” But it is important to be aware that it is possible to be successful teaching the lesson and fail to teach the students (Daly et al., 1996; Wang, Haertel, & Walberg, 1993). Sticking to the plan may be effective in many cases, but to be successful we need to teach students rather than lessons. We should shift our awareness to what the students are doing, thinking and feeling. As we will discuss in the next section, focusing more on learning outcomes and looking for evidence that those outcomes are being accomplished rather than thinking about where we are in our plan will be a helpful mindset. As student teachers or novice teachers, it will be especially useful to develop the intention to move our awareness outward while staying grounded inside. Worrying about what the students think about us or being too slavish to the lesson plan will cause us to miss the essential reality in the class. In other words, we will be more successful when we are in the moment, present to our students.

Chapter Reflection 11-e: Reflect on where your awareness is located when you are confident and comfortable, and alternately where it is when you feel threatened and insecure. We explore the idea of more functional thinking in more depth in Chapter 18 but it may be useful to examine the notion of awareness here briefly. What you likely recognized from your self-exploration above is that your awareness was located in very different places in each case. When we are confident and comfortable, we feel a sense of peace internally that allows us to be present and attentive to things around us. When we are threatened our awareness stays outside of ourselves on the perceived threat and draws us into a distressed and egocentric internal dialogue. As a result, when we feel threatened we are likely to create a distorted and limited perception of what is around us. It may be useful to be intentional in our efforts to promote a core of peace that will better lead to our ability to be open and attentive to that around us.

3. Promote Lesson Momentum. When we are aware, we are better able to read the students and promote lesson momentum (Doyle, 2006; Gump, 1974; Kounin, 1970). We need to ask ourselves frequently whether students have reached what Kounin (1970) refers to as “satiation.” Has our snappy lesson become stale? Have we asked students to take in too many details? Are we moving too fast and causing frustration? Ask questions and read the students’ body language; work to recognize when they are getting bored, frustrated, or are just ready to move on. If these signals are present, we ignore them at our peril. If we absolutely must continue with a task that is causing boredom or frustration, we need to let the students know that we recognize their emotional state and that (1) there is a legitimate need to continue and (2) when they can expect the task will be complete. But requesting that students deny their basic needs should be done sparingly, as it requires us to make a withdrawal from the emotional bank account we hold with them.

Certain types of instructional methodologies will lend themselves to greater likelihood of momentum problems (Gettinger & Kohler, 2006; Shindler, 2003); recall the discussion in Chapter 6 related to psychological movement. Those lessons that contribute to the students’ success psychology (e.g., internal locus of control, sense of belonging and acceptance and mastery orientation) will possess an inherent sense of movement and momentum as they tap into internal sources of motivation.

Chapter Reflection 11.f: Imagine that a teacher has come to you for advice. They like to teach courses in an exclusively lecture and test format. They feel that is the best way to accomplish their content outcomes. Yet they admit that they struggle with classroom management and that their students are frequently bored and restless much of the time, not to mention achieving poorly. They do not want to change what they do, but they want their students to be motivated and well-behaved. What advice do you give?

4. Make Time Your Friend. For many of us, especially new teachers, managing time is a challenging part of the job. It is not easy, but predicting how long an activity will last does become easier with experience. In general it is better not to fight the clock but let your learning goals guide your decision-making related to time. In addition, it is essential to be proactive and prepared for the potential situations that may arise. Being ready for anything will make time your friend. Having answers to the following questions in mind before you begin teaching a lesson will help you prepare.

· What is the essential material or learning outcome in the lesson? It is useful to have a sense of the learning goals that “must happen,” “should happen,” and “would be nice if they happened” (but are less critical). You will be faced with countless situations in which you recognize that time is limited and you will have to cut something. It is best to know priorities beforehand.

· What should students do if they are done while other students are still working? It is unfair to ask students to be still and unoccupied simply because they have completed their work quickly. Many behavioral problems result from pointless idleness. Therefore, even if that “thing” is simply talking quietly or reading, have something for students to do when they complete the current work. When you consider activities to fill that time, keep in mind these principles: 1) when the student demonstrates success, the teacher recognizes them with something positive; and 2) activity is a positive consequence, and inactivity is a negative consequence. Therefore it is best not to give students pointless busy work or just let them stand around. Encourage them to check their work. Have them help another student. Let them complete other homework. Let them work on the computer, or play an educational game, or drill. Give them an activity that says “great job working hard to complete the task; as a result, you have the opportunity to get better or help others get better in the following way.”

· What will you do if the lesson takes less time than you initially planned? Instead of stretching out the lesson and hindering the momentum or just letting the class hang out for the remaining time, use the time to accomplish something meaningful. That may mean doing a mini-lesson on something coming up tomorrow or after recess. It may mean playing a quick all-class game to send the message that when the class works hard, they fit in another activity -- something just as fun as learning lessons. It may mean getting out journals, getting into groups for a discussion, or taking care of some unfinished business that has been waiting for a block of time. It will be useful to put this contingency activity on your lesson plan.

2. Promoting the Level of Student Engagement

Reflect on your experience as a student. When you and the other members of the class felt engaged in an activity, how much misbehavior did you commonly notice? Conversely, when you felt a minimal level of engagement did you and your classmates experience temptation to find other, less acceptable ways to entertain yourselves? Consider these questions within the lens of students’ basic needs -- it will be apparent that engaging lessons are more satisfying. Preparing an engaging lesson also states that we care about student learning. The term “engagement” is used rather broadly, and while we probably know it when we see it, it may be useful to examine the idea of engagement more closely. We find that it is related to the degree to which the students: a) care about the topic/activity, b) connect with the topic/activity, and c) feel cognitively on the hook when involved in the activity.

Chapter Reflection 11-g: Recall a time when you felt engaged in a learning activity. Did you care about it? Did you connect with it? What did the teacher do to encourage these qualities?

Helping Students Connect with the Material

If we were to observe a typical lesson period, it would be common to see the following sequence of events: 1) The students begin a lesson with hope, and relatively engaged; 2) most students make an effort to understand and invest in the activity; 3) over time if the lesson is too conceptual, becomes tedious, lacks interest to the student, or is not challenging enough, some students begin to get restless; 4) the teacher begins to exhibit negativity as a result; and 5) the lesson ultimately descends into dysfunction and/or the teacher begins to engage in an increasing number of disciplinary responses. While this is typical, it is entirely unnecessary and is avoidable. The problem is not the students. The problem is merely the lesson and/or lesson management (Wang, Haertel, & Walberg, 1993).

To remedy this situation, we can begin by asking ourselves how we are going to help our students connect with the material or activity. Does it relate to their lives? How can we connect it to their prior knowledge? If it is conceptual, how can we make it concrete and practical? If it is practical, how can we give it broader meaning? In an effort to help students connect with the material, it will be helpful to consider incorporating some or all of the following strategies:

1. Anticipatory activities. We often lose sight of the fact that while we may understand the material that we about to teach and have had the opportunity to process it and connect it to our larger knowledge or skill schema, our students need some help putting their new learning into existing schema. So instead of jumping right in and presenting new ideas or demonstrating a new skill, it will be effective to incorporate an anticipatory device to help set the context for new material. Two effective examples of these are anticipatory sets and advanced organizers. Anticipatory sets are activities that set the stage for the new material. They can be as simple as a question, a prop, or a movie clip. They help the student connect with the idea in a more personal or concrete manner and so prepare them for the concepts to come. An advanced organizer is a graphic depiction of a concept such as a diagram, a timeline, an idea map, a table, or a chart. These help students create a pre-organization for the material to come. They are especially useful when the content is highly conceptual or lacks a context. Anticipatory activities help all students process the coming material better and prevent a lot of “I don’t get it.”

2. Match instructional strategies to content. If the same instructional methodology (e.g., direct instruction) is used for all content, it will lead to problems with student engagement, and therefore more misbehavior (Gettinger & Kohler, 2006). Just as it works best to run on land, swim in water, and fly in the air, students will feel most comfortable learning in a mode that best fits the material that they are learning. In most cases, that means learning skills through direct instruction, concepts inductively, and facts within an applied context. When we teach material in a manner that works counter to the way that the human brain operates naturally it produces frustration. We don’t expect our students to swim everywhere, so why would we expect them to process all material with the same instructional format?

3. Providing directions in a manner that meets all students’ cognitive needs. A good portion of our students will have a different set of cognitive style preferences than we will. It is common to find that after we have given directions, the students who are similar to us in style have understood, whereas those who are on the other side of the cognitive style fence have not (Myers et al, 1998; Shindler, 2004). Therefore, when giving directions it will be helpful to make sure that we meet all style needs. No matter our style, we need to be very intentional about making sure that all students understand the conceptual context, i.e., how the lesson fits into the broader sequence of unit, why it is meaningful, and where it is going in a general sense, as well as the practical aspects of the lesson, i.e., what are the students supposed to do, what are the steps involved, and what it will actually look like in the end.

4. Inductive, problem-based or inquiry-based lessons. Many teachers fear teaching in a manner in which they do not control the knowledge and/or content of the discussion. They avoid using such strategies as hands-on, discovery, or inquiry-based learning. Much like the monkey who cannot get his hand out of the jar because he refuses to let go of the apple, this effort at control is likely to produce an undesirable outcome. The thought is, “If I let the students do hands-on/inductive learning, I will lose control, and bad things will happen to my classroom management.” As in allowing students to learn cooperatively, these strategies may require some investment in helping the students discover how to approach learning in a more investigative manner if it is unfamiliar to them. Over time the level of engagement and the higher level of achievement will pay off in both learning and behavioral results (Hickey & Schafer, 2006; Russell, Kruger, & Schafer, 2004). Inductive learning has a built-in movement to it, is inherently more engaging, and unlike direct instruction, there are no gaps in instruction (where problem often arise), and off-task behavior is most often overt and observable so there is little if any “checking out” on the part of students.

Chapter Reflection 11-h: Research suggests that the most significant predictor of a student dropping out is academic performance (Hess 1987). Many dropouts leave school simply because the work held no interest for them. In your assessment, how much of the drop-out rate is related to ineffective instruction?

5. High participation formats. Kounin (1970) found that high participation formats encouraged student engagement. In his research, he noticed that when teachers used instructional formats that allowed for the highest portion of students to be involved, fewer students were off-task or bored. These formats were contrasted to more passive forms of instruction such as lecturing and procedures that include a lot of waiting in line or waiting for one’s turn. In addition, high participation formats meet the learning style needs of both the introverts and extroverts in the class. The extroverts are energized by the collaborative element and the introverts are provided an opportunity to speak in a smaller, more comfortable context.

Bartscher et al. (2001) found that when teachers incorporated high participation instructional strategies (e.g., cooperative learning, peer review, creative writing) with middle school students the result was both higher achievement and a lower incidence of discipline referrals.

6. Formal concept-building exercises. The use of formal concept-building activities such as concept attainment can promote the concept acquisition skills of all learners and are especially critical for students for whom conceptual thinking is less natural (Shindler, 2004). Formal concept attainment is the process of helping students move inductively or deductively from the specifics of a concept to generalizations. In an inductive approach a class is led through an exploration of specific examples of a concept, followed by the generation of a definition, and finally by the opportunity to use that definition to classify further examples and non-examples. A variety of effective strategies for promoting concept understanding exist. Survey the more concrete learners in the class and they will attest that when the material gets too conceptual and/or abstract they get frustrated or feel like checking out (Myers et al, 1998). Formal concept-building activities meet all students’ learning style needs. They are satisfying to the abstract learners and provided a concrete step-by-step process for the more practical learners.

7. Project-based learning and providing opportunities for students to put it all together

Projects provide a number of features that promote higher levels of engagement, motivation, and satisfaction (Mergendoller, 2006). In contrast to the teacher-led direct instruction lesson, projects provide a natural momentum and context for synthesis. Students are creating something that does not exist until they produce it. The goal of the activity is concrete and built-in. Projects provide an opportunity for students to “put it all together” in a way that surpasses most other modes of learning. They afford countless places for students to relate previous knowledge to their efforts.

In a project-based context, students have the added motivation that comes from knowing that they are going to show their completed effort to others. They own it. They are the experts. They have concrete evidence of their effort that they can admire and feel proud of in the end.

Chapter Reflection 11-i: Reflect on the many people you have known who considered themselves poor students yet thrived in a project-based environment such as industrial arts, fine arts, drama, home economics, athletics or auto mechanics. How would you describe the change in their personality from the typical classroom context to their preferred subject? Was there a change in their level of engagement, locus of control, sense of competence? What implications do these stories have for us as teachers?

Like inquiry based-learning and cooperative learning, project-based learning may be new to some of your students. Therefore you will need to be patient and be very intentional about teaching the skills necessary for them to succeed. It may be necessary to keep the students mindful of the relationship between acting responsible and being given greater freedom and opportunity. Over time, the inherently more engaging and satisfying nature of these learning strategies will provide the incentive necessary for students to treat them with the respect they require.

The Ever Essential Importance of Cultivating a Culture of Listening

The level of engagement in the class will be higher when we have established a “culture of listening” (see Chapter 5), in which students have become accustomed to being attentive and respectful and for expecting the same from their peers. An integral part of the transformational classroom is a progressively higher level of awareness on the part of its members. Listening, engagement, and coming out of one’s ego-centeredness are each intrinsically motivating, however, this satisfaction is usually masked by or competing with students’ insecurities and mental conditioning (especially to flee the present moment). We need to be intentional in our efforts to help students feel secure and see the value in bringing their awareness outside their own “mental noise.” One strategy that supports this goal is that of keeping students cognitively on the hook.

Interaction Patterns that Keep Students Cognitively on the Hook

When I am in the field working directly with teachers, one of the pieces of feedback that I give most regularly relates to the benefits of keeping students “on the hook” cognitively. The way we manage our questioning and class discussions can encourage either boredom or cognitive engagement (Doyle, 2006; Evertson et al., 1980). Evertson et al., (1980) found that effective teachers asked an average of over twenty-four questions during a fifty-minute period, whereas less effective teachers asked an average of eight.

The difference between effectiveness and ineffectiveness can also be more subtle and requires only minor adjustments in our teaching technique. To achieve engagement, we first need to understand the dynamics and then incorporate a few strategies to keep students cognitively on the hook. For example, consider the following two scenarios:

Scenario A: The teacher asks one student a closed-ended question related to the topic. For example, “Armando, how many degrees are there in each angle of an equilateral triangle?”

Scenario B: The teacher asks one student a closed-ended question, and then follows up with an open-ended question to the other students. For example, “Armando just said he thought that there were 60 degrees in an equilateral triangle; do you agree with him? And how do you think he came up with that answer?”

Chapter Reflection 11-j: Reflect on these two situations. It is likely that you have experienced something such as situation A many times as a student. When it was not your turn, where was your mind? Did you feel accountable? Would you have felt more accountable in the B scenario?

If we compare the two scenarios above within the dynamics of social/indirect learning their differences become more apparent. In Scenario A, the teacher (T) is interacting with the individual student (S) somewhat exclusively. The rest of the members of the class (O) are essentially spectators or largely “cognitively off the hook.” Over time, this interaction pattern trains students to “check out” when it is not their turn. And very often when they are relatively tuned in, they are not likely to be attending to the desired cognitive processes. For example, it is more likely that they are thinking something along the lines of, “I wonder if Armando will get the answer correctly?” or “Armando is one of the smarter students in the class, he should get this right.” Attention to these tangential questions does little to promote the goals of the lesson.

There are many ways to bring all the students in the class into cognitive processing. In Situation B, this was accomplished by simply asking a follow-up open-ended process question. As a result, the students felt accountable and included in the interaction. With this type of interaction students quickly learn that there is an expectation that they will always need to be “cognitively on the hook.” Everything that is said is part of a string of reasoning and reflection/meta-cognition, and one may be asked at any part to step in and join the enterprise.

There are several strategies to promote cognitive engagement. Some of these include:

• Partner or Group Share. Instead of asking a single student a question, ask students to share their answers with a partner or a group. Then call on one group or individual to share their answer. This format is more active and allows more students to process out loud.

• Think Pair Share. Upon determining that a question would be valuable if it were processed, first ask the students to spend ___ amount of time thinking about their answer (15-40 seconds is usually adequate), then instruct them to find another classmate with whom to share their thinking. To encourage more diverse pairing, you might ask them to find someone with a certain characteristic (e.g., someone with the same color shoes, or someone who was born within one month of them, etc.). It will be useful to vary the pairing characteristic often to promote a greater degree of different pairings. This strategy combines both reflection time and collaborative processing, and gets students up and out of their seats.

• Use of Personal Chalk or White Boards. Instead of asking students to come to the board and write their answer to a problem or sentence or having them respond verbally, consider having students write their answers on a personal chalk or white board. This can also be done in groups. More students are involved and the answers on the boards provide us with an excellent source of assessment information.

• Vote with Fingers or by Standing. After one student has responded to a question, ask the others to stand up if they agree and remain seated if they disagree, or have them put up one finger if they agree and two if they disagree. Again, this provides us with excellent assessment information.

• Wait Time. After asking a question, simply wait a few seconds before you take a response from a student. Then when a student has responded, simply wait for a few seconds before you make any evaluative statements. Alternately, you may just want to ask quietly, “So what do you think?” before waiting a while to give the students time to reflect and process. Wait time has been shown to increase engagement level in students (Tobin, 1987).

• Using Both Open- and Closed-Ended Questions. Typically open-ended questions encourage a deeper level of processing than closed-ended questions. For example, “What do you think the ____ thought when _______?” (open-ended), versus “What are the three states of matter?” (closed-ended). Mixing open- and closed-ended questions together intentionally tends to create a greater level of engagement than using either one exclusively (Evertson et al., 1980).

• Repeating the Question. Simply repeating the question after a response can work to encourage the students to rethink their answers. While it should not be used extensively, it can send the message that your role is not one of giving instant gratification after each answer, and that you want to encourage the process of reflection.

Chapter Reflection 11-k: After reviewing the following real classroom scenario, assess the problems with the teacher’s lesson design as you see it, and develop an alternative strategy that you feel would be more effective.

Scenario: The teacher decided to teach a lesson related to science to her group of first graders. The concept she was teaching was sea versus land creatures. She created an excellent set of hands-on materials including pictures of both sea and land creatures. She divided the class into two lines and had the two groups compete. The student at the front of each line was asked to classify the picture as either a land or sea creature. The activity worked very well for about the first three students at the front of each line. The classification aspect was very effective on many levels. However, over time there were an increasing number of disruptions in the back of each line, especially involving students who had already had their turns. After fewer than half of the students had participated, the activity deteriorated to the point where it had to be stopped.

Assume that the topic and classification aspect of the activity are worth keeping. What would you do to make the lesson work better so that there is a greater level of engagement and therefore fewer management issues?

3. Clarity of the Learning Targets

Reflect on your anxiety level in the following two hypothetical situations:

1) You are a passenger in a car and you do not know where it is going or the purpose of the trip.

2) You are a passenger in a car and you know where the car is going and why you need to go there.

Given these two situations, it is likely that you would feel more anxiety in the first. When we do not know where we are going, we feel anxiety, and that anxiety will manifest itself somehow. Commonly, it takes the form of frustration. In some case we might externalize that frustration directly by asking, “Where are we going?” And sometimes we might displace our frustration into some form of disruptive or even destructive behavior.

As Richard Stiggins (2001) suggests, when students have learning targets that are clear and standing still, they will reach them. Gettinger & Kohler (2006) state, “Clarity in instruction relates positively to multiple outcomes including learner satisfaction, achievement, and student engagement (p.88). When our students do not have a clear sense of where they are going or what it will take to get there, they will be frustrated. Clear targets will contribute to both better performance and better behavior.

Moreover, it is useful to recognize in the travel analogy above that while the driver may have had a very good sense of where the car was going--which would have helped keep him/her from getting lost--it would not have done much to remedy the passengers’ sense of frustration.

We rarely relate the quality of the learning objectives that we craft to the quality of the behavior in the class. But as we examine the connection more closely it is probably stronger than first considered. We may have viewed the notion of writing the clear observable behavioral objectives as simply a formality or even a luxury. However, when we determine the behavioral outcome that we want to see, we are better teachers. When we are better teachers, everything in the class runs more effectively.

So what are good objectives? Good objectives are learning targets that have been clearly and specifically stated, are as concrete as possible and identify observable behavior and/or behavioral evidence of a learning outcome (Borich & Stollenwerk, 2000). When we have sound knowledge of the skill, cognitive operation, or can visualize how it looks when the students can demonstrate that they have mastered the idea, we possess a tool that will help us promote success. Furthermore, we are able to project and articulate that purpose to the students so that they know where they are going and how they are going to get there. When we know the topic that we are teaching but do not have clear learning outcomes, our students are like the passenger in the car who does not know where they are going or what the purpose of the trip is.

What teachers most often construct for objectives (when they do write them at all) could be classified into three basic types: 1) material to be covered, 2) completion of a task, and 3) cognitive or skill behavioral outcome objectives. Read through the examples of each type below, considering the effectiveness of each to create effective learning targets that are clear and standing still.

1. “Material to be covered” objective. Example: Cover page 34 and review for final.

2. “Completion” type objective. Example: Learners will complete division problems and begin homework on page 35.

3. “Cognitive behavioral outcome” objective. Example: Learners will 1) apply the process of division after it has been modeled in class to problems with remainders, and 2) recognize what remainders are, and 3) be able to explain the concept of remainders in their own words and/or to peers.

If we have written either “material to be covered” or “completion” objectives, our questions as we teach are likely related to task completion, such as “How are we doing getting done with this?” “How much time do I have left in the period?” “Who is done and who is still working?” These questions are useful as secondary considerations. But they should not be the primary considerations. The primary attention should be placed on whether there is evidence that any particular student can demonstrate the ability to perform the cognitive operation needed to succeed in a task. That is: are they learning? Not: are they finishing the assignment?

Some may say, “I do both, and while I may not write the cognitive behavioral outcome down, I know what it is.” That may true. Nevertheless, when I observe teachers who have written completion objectives, in almost every case I see completion as their focus, and when I observe teachers who have taken the time to conceive and then write clear cognitive behavioral outcome objective, I see a teacher who is looking for that when they check the progress the class or any individual student is making during the lesson. If you know what you are looking for then it should not be a lot of trouble to write it, so why not simply take the extra 30 seconds to do it?

Chapter Reflection 11-l: When you made the effort to write out behavioral objectives for your lesson, do you find that doing it was more difficult than you thought? What does that tell you? It may be a useful reminder that we often make assumptions about how well we know what we are trying to teach, and those assumptions may not be sound.

Why Does the Type of Objective Affect Discipline?

When we have our attention on learning goals rather than completion goals, it creates significant differences in our teaching performance that will both directly and indirectly influence the quality of our classroom management. Two of these primary differences will be the following:

1. We teach differently. We have a greater sense of purpose. We interact in a manner that creates goals and momentum, because it is learning-driven rather than completion-driven. When we have a clear sense of the cognitive operation or skill that we are looking for, we are more likely to use feedback language that supports the mastery of that objective. As a result our engagement level is higher. We then consciously or unconsciously “sell” an importance to every step and/or component of the task.
2. The students think differently. Students pick up on our behavior and the attitude that we project. When they recognize that we are making an effort to help them reach goals related to learning rather than completion--e.g., applying a principle, synthesizing content, or mastering a skill--they respond with a greater level of investment in reaching those goals. Put simply, students who are focused on reaching learning goals have fewer episodes when they feel the need to misbehave or displace their frustration through negative behavior. Conversely, students who see the work as simply “busy work” assigned by a teacher who is just “getting through the material” have a much greater likelihood of misbehaving. When we communicate clear learning targets our students have both a clear sense of the pathway toward and a vision of the successful end result. This is both motivational and focusing.

Chapter Reflection 11-m: Recall the discussion on basic needs in Chapter 7. How many basic needs are being met by the fact that a lesson has a clear sense of purpose? What happens when basic needs are not met? How many management problems that you observe would you judge to be related to students’ feeling a lack of purpose to their work?

Rubrics and Authentic Assessment

Most teachers have come to recognize the many benefits of using rubrics in their assessment. Some of those benefits are well established and predictable. For example, when we compare one class that does not use assignment rubrics with one that does, we find that the students in the class with the rubric create consistently better quality products (Gettinger & Kohler, 2006, Stiggins, 2001). However, few teachers recognize the relationship between the use of rubrics and the quality of the behavior in their classes. In fact, one could go so far as to say that the relationship between one’s assessment choices and the effects on student behavior is one of the most under-examined areas in education.

The Benefits of Using Rubrics on Motivation and Classroom Management

• Rubrics create another level of clarity to the learning targets (Gettinger & Kohler, 2006). In the example of the passenger in the car above, the rubric is like a train or bus schedule. It puts the passenger in control of the trip. The passengers only need to choose where they want to go.

• A well-designed rubric can promote a greater degree of internal locus of control and mastery-orientation in students (Gettinger & Kohler, 2006). They support what Gettinger and Kohler (2006) refer to as the “effort-outcome linkage” (p.88). When students have a rubric in hand that clearly spells out what constitutes a quality process, it contributes to each student’s achieving success as a result of investment in the process as opposed to ability. This leads to the students’ needs for power and competence being met to a greater degree, and as a result there are fewer incidents in which students misbehave in the attempt to get those needs satisfied.

• Clear rubrics contribute to a reduced need on the part of the students to ask questions, which gives the teacher more time to teach rather than constantly re-explain. Moreover, since rubrics create less ambiguity, there are fewer cases where students miss the target and feel the need to make excuses.

• Rubrics support reliability within the assessment. Reliability leads to a sense of trust and fairness in the process. When students feel that the process of assessment is fair they are less likely to translate poor evaluations into hostility, resentment and revenge. The fact is that many students perceive the assessment process to be personal--about how much the teacher likes them or about how “good” they are. Rubrics bring objectivity to the process, and therefore an element of fairness.

• Similar to clear behavioral objectives, rubrics provide the clarity that helps meet the learning style needs of both the sequential and random learners in the class (Shindler, 2004). Sequential Learners thrive on a transparent structure and well-articulated goals, and experience a loss of motivation and focus in the presence of a high level of ambiguity, too many changes, or a learning program that seems arbitrary. It is not uncommon for the Sequential Learner to interpret the lack of clarity in the class as evidence of incompetence in the teacher, whereas the Random Learners are much more comfortable in an environment including flexibility and situational adjustments and as such are less concerned with drawing inside the lines, if those lines are seen as inessential. When Random Learners’ creatively-interpreted efforts are met with a poor assessment by the teacher due to unclear learning targets, the result can be discouragement and tentativeness in future efforts

• Rubrics enable us to better include process aspects of the product, performance, or skill into our assessment system. The benefits of doing this will be discussed in the next section.

Portfolios can have many of the same motivational benefits as rubrics, and while they may not accomplish the same level of reliability, they do promote the students’ internal locus of control. Portfolios provide a concrete archive of the students’ growth over time and therefore offer a practical reminder that learning is about application rather than merely aptitude.

4. Value and Providing Incentives for Students to Invest in the Process

When we place value on the process whether formally or informally, we put the power in the hands of the students. The result is a significant effect on the quality of behavior and motivation (Ames, 1992, Gettinger & Kohler, 2006). This effect is related to the following causes:

• When we emphasize the process we encourage the basic needs of power and competence and promote an internal locus of control and mastery-orientation.

• When students view that success comes from their investment in the process they are more likely to invest and make the effort. When they view success as related to innate ability, few students are motivated, while most take on an attitude of resignation. That resignation kills motivation and breeds compensation in the form of misbehavior. Contrastingly, value for the process has the effect of empowerment.

• When students put their attention on the process rather than the end result a series of smaller, more immediate goals emerge. Instead of looking at the desired result and feeling intimidated, overwhelmed, or tempted to procrastinate, attention to the process shifts the students’ attention to the “now” --what is important now? “What small goal do I need to attend to at this time?” This strategy is especially valuable for students who have short attention spans or ADHD.

• When students get into the flow of attending to the process, activities take on a natural movement and momentum.

Chapter Reflection 11-n: Reflect on why when we put our attention on the process it tends to produce a natural psychological movement to our effort. It may be illuminating to incorporate the lens of the three elements of “success psychology” in this exercise.

Some of the ways that we can encourage students to put their attention into the process include:

• Formally or informally assess process outcomes. When we formally assess process aspects of the assignment and include them in the grade, we make the statement that the process is valuable in a real and material way. This idea and a process for creating an assessment system are explained in detail in Chapter 21.

• Give process feedback to students. Instead of giving praise or general feedback, make the effort to give positive recognitions of student process-related performance. For example, instead of saying, “The answers look good, well done!” it would be more effective to say, “I see you taking the time to outline your thoughts before you write, smart idea!”

• Use process workshops. When we ask students to write a paper, create a product, produce a presentation, or perform any other complex task, we can encourage process investment by breaking the process down into workshop stages. This can be done for individual or group products. An example of an individual product development series is that of the writer’s workshop. The five steps in the Writer’s Workshop Process are the following:
• Prewriting
• Drafting
• Revising
• Editing
• Publishing

In the next chapter we will examine a workshop process for a cooperative group effort.

When we commit to valuing and providing incentives for students to invest in the process, we will observe evidence over time that students are responding. Indications of this include:

• Observing a higher level of student investment from start to finish.
• Noticing that students are displaying faith in the process rather than taking short cuts or procrastinating.
• Recognizing that students feel freer to take risks and innovate. Many teachers hold the misconception that to encourage innovation, it is best to give students a blank canvas. This may appear to be a reasonable assumption, but in most cases it produces less creativity than it does intimidation, and most often results in the majority of students simply reproducing the efforts of one of their peers. Process guidelines provide support and tools for the creative process.

Chapter Reflection 11-o: What have you found that promotes your creative process? Survey a few others, and note what they say as well. What do your findings say about the kinds of strategies that you would want to employ to promote the creative efforts of your students?

5. Relevant and Meaningful Curriculum

Freedom Writers (book and movie by the same title; Gruwell, 1999) is a very effective portrayal of the true story of one class of students and their teacher Erin Gruwell. When Gruwell arrived she found a group of students who functioned poorly as a collective, had a very low level of motivation, and exhibited what could best be described as a fundamentally failure-based psychology. Moreover, the students resisted her initial efforts since they viewed her as an outsider. Over time, Gruwell profoundly changed the dynamics and psychology in the class. Two factors of causation stand out. First, Gruwell instilled in her students a sense that she believed in them and cultivated a success psychology within the class. Second, she made a commitment to finding material that was meaningful and relevant to her students’ lives.

I have visited the school in which the events of the book took place and many others like it. And for every teacher like Gruwell, there are countless others who take a 4-Style teacher approach. They mistakenly trust that being strict enough, expelling enough students, and shaming students sufficiently will get results. These 4-Style teachers succeed mostly at confirming the students’ negative identity and adding to the staggering percentage of students who drop out of school. In fact, if one’s goals were simply a better-controlled class and fewer discipline problems, the path of Gruwell and those like her will be more effective than being a 4-Style teacher in the end. Most students drop out as a result of feeling that the curriculum had no interest or value to them (Hess, 1987; Woods, 1995). A student who does not care about what they are learning is a student who has little to lose. Threats of a poor grade or suspension have little power over a student who thinks school is a waste of time.

I have yet to meet a student who did not desire a meaningful curriculum or a student who did not respond to being in a class where the curriculum was engaging, meaningful and relevant to their lives. In research conducted in high schools, we commonly observe groups of students who act unmotivated, disruptive and disrespectful one period, and engaged, responsible, and respectful of others the next. The difference between the two can be explained in most cases by the curriculum that the teachers in each class were using (Shindler, Jones, Taylor & Cadenas, 2003).

Some of the ways to make curriculum more meaningful have been examined earlier in this chapter. Instructional strategies that promote engagement become inherently more meaningful, so it is impossible to separate the two. For example, strategies such as inductive learning, cooperative learning, and project-based learning all have the potential to make any material more meaningful. If we were to explore various classrooms we would find countless ways that teachers create meaningful learning experiences. A few examples include:

• Using culturally relevant materials such as literature that relates to students’ personal experience.
• Getting to know your students’ interests, gifts and making the effort to connect material to them.
• Finding ways to make learning applied to practical applications that students may ultimately make use of in the future.
• Teaching science in an inductive and hands-on manner.
• Having students write their own goals (especially useful in P.E.).
• Having students lead their own conferences.
• Having students take part in service learning projects.
• Having students take part in Facing History and Ourselves curriculum.
• Having students do ethnographic studies of their families and communities.
• Including a unit of community (K-6).
• Letting students choose books and topics that relate to their interests.
• Relating curriculum to current events.

Chapter Reflection 11-p: Take out a piece of paper and brainstorm some ideas from your experience (or that you have found online) and continue listing ways to make the curriculum more meaningful and relevant from things that you have observed.

SUCCEEDING WITH STUDENTS OF DIFFERENT ABILITY LEVELS AND LEARNING STYLES THROUGH THE USE OF DIFFERENTIATED CURRICULUM

Meeting the needs of all students is a daunting challenge. There are few teachers who do not feel even a little guilty that their curriculum is not meeting all of their students’ needs. One solution is to provide differential learning experiences for students depending upon their needs and abilities (Wang, Haertel, & Walberg, 1993). While this approach can encourage higher levels of success for many students, especially those at the high and low ends of the ability level, it requires a substantial investment of time and energy on the part of the teacher. For this reason, it may be prudent to invest in strategies that meet the needs of all learners first, then supplement with individualized strategies as necessary. Effectively executing the strategies in the first four sections of this chapter will promote success with more students more of the time, making differentiation less necessary. However, to provide the necessary support for many of our learners, we will want to find ways to: 1) differentiate instruction for different ability levels; and 2) teach for the success of students of all learning styles.

Succeeding with Students of Different Ability Levels

Many behavioral problems are rooted in work that is either too challenging or not challenging enough for some students. When the work is viewed as too difficult, students may quit and seek out other means to meet their need for competence (e.g., acting out, getting attention, bullying, acting helpless, blaming others, etc.). This is especially common for students who have developed what Dweck (2000) refers to as a “helpless pattern.” Conversely, when the work lacks a sufficient degree of challenge some students will become bored. In many cases the greatest behavioral challenges will be gifted and talented students who want a greater level of stimulation; not finding it in the curriculum they attempt to find it through other means (e.g., challenging our authority, rebellion, reinventing assignments, or picking and choosing when to tune in and when to check out).

Chapter Reflection 11-q: How do you act when you feel that a task is too difficult? How do you act when you feel a task is too simple? Do you find yourself compensating in some way? What compensatory behaviors have you observed others use?

Succeeding with Students who have Different Cognitive/Learning Styles

When we know our own cognitive/learning style preferences, we are less a product of our conditioning and have an additional tool to keep from being unconscious of our default tendencies (Myers et al, 1998). When we know our students’ cognitive/learning preferences, we have a window into how they learn best, how they tend to process information and the kinds of learning contexts in which they will likely thrive and those that they will find challenging. This knowledge is power. In our hands, this knowledge offers a glimpse into the human learning owner’s manual. When we share it with our students, we give them a gift of empowerment for their own growth as a learner.

Successfully Teaching Across Type

Once we have become acquainted with our style and those of our students, we will want to turn our attention to how our teaching can promote the success of students of all learning styles. To this end it will be useful to keep in mind that we will be more successful with all students if we use strategies that were described earlier in the chapter. These strategies are effective in part because they work for students on both sides of each cognitive dimension. Next, we need to recognize that no matter how well we know our own preferences and default tendencies it will be helpful to be intentional about ensuring that students on the side of each cognitive fence are getting their needs met. While we may not personally understand why students on the other side of a dimension have a particular set of needs, we can certainly show an appreciation that they do have such needs. Most teachers find that considering the requirements of those on both sides of the fence makes them better teachers as well as more well-rounded human beings. Table 11.1 outlines a sample of ideas to consider when teaching students with opposing preferences.

Figure 11.2: Effective Teaching Across Type Dimensions

Introverts teaching Extroverts	Extroverts teaching Introverts
· Use group work and cooperative learning · Use wait time with questioning · Provide time for movement · Value expression	· Provide individual tasks · Call on all students regularly · Provide written venues for thinking · Value reflection
Sensates/Concretes teaching Intuitives/Abstracts	Intuitives/Abstracts teaching Sensates/Concretes
· Provide opportunities for creativity · Give students the “big picture” of their work · Use concept attainment and problem-based strategies on occasion · Teach inductively on occasion · Don’t overemphasize the details	· Provide hands-on activities · Give clear step-by-step directions · Explain the practical application to work · Avoid long abstract or theoretical lectures · Value the quality of students’ work
Judgers/Sequentials teaching Perceivers/Randoms	Perceivers/Randoms teaching Judgers/Sequentials
· Allow for some flexibility in assignment format · Use variety · Provide clear written assignment guidelines · Allow for flexible time frames for completion · Value novelty and open-mindedness	· Provide clear written assignment guidelines · Prepare students for changes in plans · Try to keep to the agreed upon schedule · Provide some routine in the day · Value accuracy and punctuality

Appendix B offers a more extensive treatment into succeeding with students of different types.

Provide opportunities for students to work in their strength areas for some part of the overall learning experience.

All students need to spend some part of each lesson or day working to their strengths. While we may not have opportunities to provide different assignments for students depending on their learning style--nor would this be necessarily desirable--we can make sure that students have had the opportunity to work in their strength area at least some of the day. When students are forced to work in an uncomfortable mode for a prolonged period of time, we can expect a reaction. While this reaction will look different for different learning style types, it will appear in some form of distress. Table 11.2 briefly outlines the four possible student academic profiles (e.g., extrovert/concrete, extrovert/abstract, introvert/concrete, and introvert/abstract) and some of the needs of each type.

Table 11.2: Learning Profiles of each of the Four Academic Type Combinations

	Extroverts (E)	Introverts (I)
Sensates (S)/Concrte Learners	ES's/Extroverted Concrete Learners Action Oriented Realists (@35%) Let me work with my hands and create something practical. Some people may call me a “kinesthetic” learner, but I would rather call myself a “doer.” I like to be part of a team and see practical results from my/our work. I have a strong need to contribute and be recognized. Don’t just explain how to do something to me, at least show me, and better yet, let me try it out. I learn from doing and then reflecting on what I have done. If you want me to understand an abstraction let me discover it inductively or I can have a difficult time integrating it into a big picture understanding. Written directions can be really helpful to me. If you expect me to continually sit and listen to a lecture and then do well on a test later, I will likely disappoint you much of the time.	IS's/Introverted Concrete Learners Thoughtful Realists (@25%) Let me work independently on tasks that are clearly spelled out. Let me work with facts and information and I will be able to use my power of insightful realism to come to sound, well thought-out conclusions. Give me a chance to be careful and thoughtful. I will be your most dependable and steady student if you give me work where the directions are clear and the desired outcome is understood beforehand. Give me recognition for my care and persistence since those are my strengths and I may not draw as much attention to myself as some of the other students. When you give vague careless directions or just expect me to “be creative” with no guidelines, I will likely feel some uneasiness and maybe even some resentment.
Intuitives (N)/Abstract Learners	EN's/Extroverted Abstract Learners Action Oriented Innovators (@25%) Let me work in situations where I can use my communications skills in my learning. If I am working in a group where there are chances to be creative, I can get really motivated. I am a much better student when I am “into the task” as opposed to when I am “not into the task.” I like to be inspired and see the purpose behind the work. I have an expressive energy that comes out when I am comfortable, and it helps me draw out my creativity and make connections across content. Talking, discussing, role-playing, debating are natural ways for me to tap that energy source. Peer tutoring, a subject that I am good at, is one of my favorite things to do. Projects where I can solve problems and draw energy from working with others and overcoming challenges are also areas where I feel very confident. When there are too many details, routines, lectures or the same old thing all the time, I may turn my creative energies into behavior that you may not like.	IN's/Introverted Abstract Learners Thoughtful Innovators (@15%) Let me work in situations where I can come up with my own ideas whenever possible. I don’t have as much trouble as some of the other students in being creative. I am often surprised when I see that I sometimes see deeper realities that other students miss. I like to come up with stories, draw pictures, or think of new ways of doing something. Some people call me a “visual learner” but I just feel more comfortable studying something for a while and understanding how it works before I try to do it or talk about it. I will be the last to volunteer usually, but I will work to master it long after the other students have moved on to something else. I need to be able make connections with the current subject and the previous subjects, so let me know the purpose behind what we are doing before you tell me what to do. If you ask me to do work that is pointless, inconsistent, or irrelevant then you will probably see me become at least a bit cynical and/or irreverent.

Chapter Reflection 11-r: Locate your own style in table 11.2 above. Does the description accurately characterize your academic tendencies? Now find the style opposite you. Do you have difficulty empathizing with students of this type? What implications does this have for your teaching?

EXAMINING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT

Many teachers make the mistake of viewing assessment as a disconnected event that occurs after the learning has taken place. When we examine the effects of assessment on classroom behavior as well as the learning process, we find that it has a powerful effect (Munk & Repp, 1994). For example, if we were to reflect on our own experience as students, we will recall that how we were assessed influenced our experience to a great extent. One could say that what and how we assess will define “what is success” in a very real and material way for our students. Therefore it will be useful to keep the following principles in mind.

• Never make grades public or use assessment for comparison purposes. When we assess the quality of our students’ work in relation to clear learning targets, we promote internal locus of control and mastery orientation. Contrastingly, when we grade on a curve or make public comparisons, we make the statement that grades are partly about learning and also partly about rewarding or shaming students. These emotions tap into the students’ fear of failure and encourage their helpless orientation in addition to damaging the relationship of trust they have with us. Similarly, when we make grades public, we make the statement that each student’s achievement is something related to other students’ achievement. As we examine that dynamic more closely, we will discover that there is never a case where there is value to comparing one student’s achievement to that of another. It is a strategy that fails as both a motivational as well as an instructional device.

Chapter Reflection 11-s: Reflect on the following classroom scenario. The teacher has just completed an effective lesson in which they have helped students of all ability levels understand and successfully complete a series of math problems. Some students are able to do all of the problems successfully, while others have only been able to complete a few, but are encouraged that they get the idea and feel confident of their ability in the future. At this point how do the students feel about their performance and their relationship with the teacher? Next, the teacher takes out the grade book and asks each student to state their score out of 10. The student begin to report one at a time, “4,” “5,” “10,” “2,” “7,” etc. Now how do the students feel about themselves and their relationship with their teacher?

• Assess process whenever possible (but it needs to be done effectively). As discussed previously in the chapter, assessing process and other areas over which the student has 100% control promotes the student’s internal locus of control and mastery orientation (Gettinger & Kohler, 2006). Therefore assessing behavior in the form of participation, process, cooperation, lab work, and/or effort can have a positive impact on the classroom performance as well as behavior. However, if this assessment process is not done systematically, it will do more harm than good. For example, if one uses a random and subjective process to give some percentage of each student’s grade for participation points, it will work against both your management and motivational goals. It will most often be viewed by the students as a power play and another way to reward favorites. A step-by-step explanation for the development of a sound and effective process for assessing participation and/or process is outlined in Chapter 20.

• Give students as much control as possible over their assessment information. Do not make grades and/or your evaluation of their progress a mystery (Mergendollor et al., 2006). Ask yourself the question, “Who is the assessment for?” When students have information they have power. When they know where they stand, what it takes to hit the target becomes clearer. Rubrics, clear instructions, and anchor papers all work together to promote a greater level of clarity of the target and lower the level of anxiety and sense of external LOC (Gettinger & Kohler, 2006). Cohen et al. (2002, in Mergendollor, 2006) found that when the teacher incorporated the use of anchor papers that represented excellent levels of performance from previous students, sixth graders performed at a higher level and exhibited less off task behavior.

• Use assessment methods that match your instructional methods. If we encourage process thinking, cooperation, and other more authentic outcomes but do not assess them, we make the statement that they are not valuable. Students will invest in that which we assess. Our assessment choices will send a message that is many times more powerful than our words. So if we assess primarily by tests and worksheets, students will quickly decide that the other (more authentic) outcomes in the class are rather meaningless (Munk & Repp, 1994).

Chapter Reflection 11-t: Complete the sentence, “The five most important things that I want my student to learn in my class are ________ .” Reflect on your list. Do you currently (or plan to) assess those things? Everything can be assessed. Go to Chapter 20 if you want help related to how to assess more complex and/or authentic outcomes.

MATCHING PEDAGOGICAL AND MANAGERIAL STYLES

“Can I be a 2-Style manager and a 1-Style instructor, or be a 1-Style manager but rely mostly on teacher-centered instruction?” It is possible to mix and match practices from different orientations into one’s class. But there is a cost to having incoherence and/or a lack of integrity in your methods. The pedagogy described in this chapter will promote the shift within students from passive consumers to active learners. Empowering students with pedagogy that puts them in control of their learning and validates their judgment and ability will foster their capacity to be successful within a self-responsible 1-Style classroom structure. However, it will also likely make them less willing to blindly follow directions without seeing their value. It is also important to note that if one wants to use a 1-Style management approach but insists on teaching with a heavily teacher-directed style, they will send mixed messages that will ultimately undermine their ability to bring about management goals. Achieving a 1-Style classroom will require a substantial commitment to creating a self-responsible, empowered, needs-satisfied group of students. Incorporating both pedagogical and managerial strategies that promote these goals will act synergistically to bring about a more effective 1-Style classroom more quickly.

CONCLUSION

We do not need to look far for examples of teacher who are so effective with their pedagogy that they experience very few management concerns. As we examine our own teaching more carefully, we are likely to find areas where more effective instruction would lead to more sound management outcomes. In the next chapter, we will examine the practice of cooperative learning. Cooperative learning, if managed effectively, can be one strategy that will lead to higher levels of engagement and learning. Nonetheless, it requires a large number of management considerations, as you will discover.

Journal Reflections

1. Reflect on the research of Jean Anyon et al. discussed earlier in the chapter. In your experience do you see a differential curriculum and set of classroom management practices used for students of different socio-economic classes? If so, what do you think are the main factors that contribute to the differences?

2. List two instructional practices that you use currently (or have seen others use) that you feel qualify as creating a psychology of success and/or meets students’ basic needs. Then list two practices that you use currently (or have seen others use) that you feel would be better to stop using.

Chapter Activities

1. Discuss your answers to Chapter Reflection 11-a within your group.

Reflect on the schools that you have observed. Would you say that you have found a relationship between the socio-economic status of the area in which schools are located and the curriculum and instruction at the school? How would you explain your findings?

2. Discuss your answers to Chapter Reflection 11-b within your group.

Teachers who do ___________ pedagogically have fewer classroom management problems.

3. Incorporate your thinking regarding the relationships between instruction, assessment, and classroom management and discipline into your Classroom Management Plan or Classroom Improvement Plan. It may be helpful to include answers to item #2 in addition to the following questions:

· What do you do instructionally to meet students’ academic needs?

· What do you do instructionally to prevent students’ needs to act out?

· How does your assessment promote the goals of your management?

· How do you allow for variable styles, cultures and circumstances in meeting the diverse needs of your students (e.g., ELLs, students with special needs, and advanced learners)?

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