TCM Table of Contents – Classroom
Management Resources – School
Climate – John Shindler
– TCM Workshops
Chapter 3: Exploring the Fundamental Components of the Classroom Environment
From Transformative Classroom Management. By
John Shindler. ©2009
Reproduction is
unlawful without permission
In
this chapter
- Explicit
vs. Implicit levels of the Classroom
- We
Teach Who We Are
- Social
Frames
- Emotional
Bank Account
- Teacher-Student
Interaction Language
- Power
- Implicit
Expectations
- Social
Learning Model
When we walk through any school and peer inside the many classrooms, we find
that each exists as its own unique environment. It has its own feel, tone and “way
things are done.” While much of the students’ overall experience comes as a result
of our intended actions and plans, a substantial portion of what makes up the overall
climate and experience of a class could be termed its implicit level or “hidden
curriculum” (Eisner, 1984: Jackson, 1968). Michael Haralambos (1991) defines the
hidden curriculum as “consisting of those things pupils learn through the experience
of attending school rather than the stated educational objectives of such institutions.”
The intentional or explicit level of schooling is made up of such factors as the
stated rules and procedures, explicit expectations and the intended curriculum.
By contrast, the implicit and commonly unconscious level is made up of such areas
as the unwritten rules, implicit expectations, social systems, the way power is
manifested and, to a great degree, the teacher simply “teaching who he is.” In this
chapter we will explore the nature and impact of this implicit and largely unconscious
level of the classroom experience.
Chapter Reflection 3-a:
What is your reaction to the idea that there are
implicit-level factors operating in the classroom? “So what? So, things happen that
are not planned.” Or “I don’t understand them, so they can’t be very important.”
As you proceed through the chapter you may better appreciate the power of this level
of the classroom experience. And as it is with natural laws, they operate whether
we understand them or not.
THE CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT
To begin to make sense of this dimension below the surface of any class,
it might help to think about a trip down the hall of a local school. Let’s imagine
that we choose to examine three comparable classrooms, once at the start of the
school year, and then a couple of months later. What are we likely to observe? If
the classes are truly comparable (e.g., same grade and/or subject area) what we
are likely to see are three classes that look very similar at the beginning of the
term. As with any new group, the students will behave in a manner consistent with
their experience and past expectations. But if we return in two months, it is very
likely that we will observe three classes that look and feel dramatically different
from one another.
Chapter Reflection
3-b: Do your own investigative research and observe
a set of classes at the start of the year and then a few weeks later. What are the
differences? How would you explain the causes? Is it the students, or the teacher?
What is the explanation for the differences? We
could probably conclude the following:
1. In the long-term,
the experience of the students in any classroom (in most cases) will have more to
do with implicit level factors than the explicitly stated wishes of
the teacher. This experience is constructed and negotiated over time through
the continuous interactions of the teacher and students.
2. The environment will
be defined primarily by the teacher and only secondarily by the students.
As Haim Ginott suggests, as the teacher “we create the weather” in the classroom.
3. The degree to which
a class is more or less “intentional” as opposed to “accidental” is strongly related
to the degree to which the teacher understands and is aware of the implicitly operating
aspects of the classroom environment.
Insert as box next to #2
I
have come to the frightening conclusion that I am the decisive element in the classroom.
It is my personal approach that creates the climate. It’s my daily mood that makes
the weather.
As
a teacher, I possess a tremendous power to make a child’s life miserable or joyous.
I can be a tool of torture, or an instrument of inspiration. I can humiliate, or
humor, hurt or heal.
In
all situations, it is my response that decides whether a crisis will be escalated
or de-escalated and a child is humanized or dehumanized.
-Haim
Ginott
If we were to classify the various factors within
any class, there are those that are primarily explicit, such as the curriculum,
the rules, and the explicit expectations, and those that are more implicit, such
as the social frames, the way power is manifested, and to a great extent the teacher
teaching “who they are.” (See Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1 Depicting the Explicit and Implicit levels of the Classroom Environment.
|
Degree to which area can be concretely evidenced. |
Component of the Overall “Classroom Reality” |
Relative Level of Awareness |
|||
|
Explicit Level The factors in our management that are obvious
and concrete. |
|
Sound
Processed and demonstrated on a conscious level* |
|||
|
Implicit
Level The “hidden curriculum” -- the factors in the
class that are below the surface, but most often define the majority of the classroom
environment. |
§
Social frames §
How power is manifested §
Emotional bank account §
Teacher language §
Teacher teaching “who they are” and what they value (e.g.,
default tendencies, self-image, parent “tapes,” world view) §
Implicit expectations |
Potentially
below the level of awareness and operating accidentally |
* The methods practiced on this explicit level
can also lead either up or down the effectiveness continuum depending on how sound
they are (as discussed in the previous chapter).
Increasing the Degree
to which Our Practices Promote an Intentional Classroom
The remaining chapters of the book will be devoted
to examining how to successfully create an intentional classroom. Yet before we
move into how to achieve results on a mostly explicit level, it will be valuable
to explore how to be more effective and aware on the implicit level. While the typical
class functions with a substantial lack of awareness of the underlying factors on
this implicit level and how they operate, it does not necessarily have to be so.
The more that we are able to develop an awareness of our classroom’s implicit level
factors and take an intentional approach toward making them work to the benefit
of the members of the class, the less accidental and more functional our class will
be.
EXAMINING
THE IMPLICIT LEVEL OF THE OVERALL CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT
Exploring the most fundamental components of the
implicit level of the classroom environment it makes sense to begin where it all
begins with us, the teacher -- teaching “who we are.” This will be followed by how
our words affect the class, the social “frames” that operate in the class, the principle
of the emotional bank account, the way that power is manifested, and the many ways
that social or indirect learning takes place in any learning environment.
We Teach Who We Are
It is said that, “we teach who we are.” If we
recall our years of schooling and reflect on what we learned in each class, we would
have to agree that as much of what we learned was related to “who” our teachers
were, as it was to “what” we studied. Recall the array of teachers who you have
had in the past. What do you recall about them? What stands out in your memory?
A reasonable guess is that what you remember is more related to who they were as
a person than what they were trying to teach you. In fact, who they were taught
you a lot. In some cases, it was how to be a good person or the kind of teacher
you wish to be, or in some cases it was qualities that you have tried to avoid exhibiting,
and/or what not to do as a teacher. Our teachers taught us something about being
human. Some teachers we respected, some we felt sorry for. Some inspired us to learn,
and some
seemed to us to be bent on killing whatever interest we had in learning. In a very
tangible way we are continuously teaching our values, culture, biases, politics,
cognitive style, and a whole lifetime of mental conditioning in addition to our
intended curriculum. No matter what we want our students to care about and what
we want them to focus on, the truth is that they are continuously learning from
“who we are.” Or more accurately, “what our conditioning expresses about us when
we teach.”
Becoming Self-Aware of My “Default Tendencies”
and “Unconscious Conditioning”
If I am unaware of my default preferences or mental
conditioning or unconscious tendencies, then I am essentially engaging in teaching
unaware of a whole host of things that I am teaching to my students. And in my own
way, I am very predictable. I will have tendencies, biases, values, and patterns
that will significantly influence my teaching. Is this a problem? The answer is
usually yes. Commonly, unconsciousness
leads to behavior we regret later. The more aware we are, the less predictable,
and the less aware, the more predictable. What is the problem with being a product
of our conditioning and hardwired preferences that lead to predictable and knee-jerk
reactive tendencies? The short answer is that our students are penalized. The long
answer will become increasingly apparent as you read further into the book. Most
classroom management problem conditions are manufactured by the teacher. And that
teacher usually has very good intentions. So, if most of us have good intentions
but still create endless problems for ourselves, it follows that good intentions
alone must not be sufficient. Successful teaching that includes effective classroom
management must require a substantial level of self-awareness. Moreover, the higher
the quality of our self-awareness, the more focused our intentions can become. There
are countless domains of thinking and behavior that are useful to become more aware
of, and as we progress we will discuss some of them. In this section, we will focus
on four of those areas: 1) self-concept, 2) cognitive style, 3) stored away “parent
tapes,” and 4) world view.
1. Self-Concept: Why
Would Students Want to Be Like Me or Care About the Subject that I am Teaching?
If I like myself, does that count for something? Conversely, if I don’t really
like myself, or feel uncomfortable in my own skin, what difference does that make
to my teaching performance? The fact is that in many subtle and unconscious ways,
we are perpetually teaching our self-concept and level of self-respect. Moreover,
research shows that how we feel about (and ultimately treat) our students will inevitably
be a reflection of how we feel about ourselves (Friedman & Farber, 1992). And
simply put, we will be better teachers if we like our students. If we feel good on the inside, it will show on
the outside in a thousand ways that we may not even be aware of.
In addition, if we
like and demonstrate a love of learning and enthusiasm for the material we are teaching,
it will rub off on students. Cabello & Terrell (1994) found that when teachers
were more enthusiastic about what they were teaching, students learned more.
Chapter Reflection
3-c Recall
the teachers who have engendered the highest amount of love and respect from you.
Were they the teachers with the largest personalities? Or the teachers who thought
they were the coolest? Or was it a teacher who expressed a care and/or respect for
you as a person?
2. Cognitive Style: Examining Our Default Preferences
Research into Cognitive Preference
(also called Personality Type, Learning Style, or Temperament Type) demonstrates
that teachers’ values are strongly predicted by their type on various cognitive
dimensions. In a very real way “we teach our cognitive type.” Myers, McCaulley,
Quenk, and Hammer (1998) found that if teachers did nothing to alter their teaching
-- that is when they resorted to their “default” tendencies, the students who were
less similar to them by cognitive preference were less successful, enjoyed the class
less and actually received lower grades, while the students who were more like them
felt more successful and received better grades. Conversely, if the teacher was
aware of their own cognitive style default tendencies and actively worked to be
more responsive to the diversity of the students’ needs, the students who differed
from them in cognitive type approached the levels of success and enjoyment of students
who were like them. Simply put, this is another dimension of teaching in which unconsciousness
leads to the penalization of students. And just as we penalize those students who
are culturally different from us when we are not aware of our biases, we penalize
those students who are cognitively different from us when our lack of awareness
leads to our defaulting to our hardwired tendencies. Appendix X explores the relationship
between learning style and classroom management in more detail.
Chapter Reflection 3-d: Recall
a teacher in whose class you thrived. If you were to identify his/her cognitive
style, would you say that you were similar? Do you think that had anything to do
with the affinity and comfort you felt?
3. Accessing our Parent Tapes
It is common to be teaching and hear what can
be described as our own parent’s voice come out of us. For some of us this is mostly
a positive experience, but for many of us, it can be disturbing. We assumed that
we would not make any of the mistakes our parents made. We need to first resist
the temptation to feel guilty or resentful of our parents. Next, we need to simply
recognize that what we might refer to as our “parent conditioning tapes” are in
there, often in the form of mental scripts. Some of the most common negative parent
conditioning tapes include the following:
- You
don’t measure up.”
- “You
think you have problems. Let me tell you about my problems.”
- “If
you make me angry, I will have to give you pain.”
- “I
love you when you are doing what I want, and am disappointed (don’t love you)
when you are not doing what I want.”
As we become more familiar with these tapes in
our heads, we need to learn to identify the triggers that lead us to react. Triggers
include being worn down, feeling inadequate or insecure, or when our students bring
the same problems to us that we brought to our parents. Finally we need to recognize
that we are not undeviatingly determined by this past conditioning. Being aware
of it and the triggers that set it off allow us to be more intentional rather than
unconscious and reactive. The remainder of the book will give you ideas on
becoming more intentional in your practice, and Chapter 16 explores pathways to
creating greater levels of consciousness and self-awareness.
Chapter Reflection
3-e: What
are some of the parent tapes that you find yourself reproducing in your class and/or
relationships?
4. Examining Our World View
What are my basic assumptions about young people?
What motivates them? What do they need? What characterizes the world that they are
entering? Our answers to these questions will have a profound effect on how we teach
(Fallon & Richardson, 2006). Moreover, it is likely that our “world view” will
define how we approach classroom management. If we have a dark view of human nature,
we will expect the worst from our students. If we have a hopeful view of human nature,
we will maintain faith in our students. This book does not endeavor to answer the
questions of human nature, but it is a certainty that what you believe to be true
about the basic nature of your students will define your classroom. Many teachers
maintain a hostile view of the world. Their classes take on those qualities of coldness,
competitiveness, and antagonism. The idea behind their basic philosophy is that
if it’s a cruel world out there, we might as well get used to it. Whether this is
an accurate reflection of the world, the result is the penalization of the students
in this type of class. If our job is to create high functioning students, we will
not get there unless we create a school world that meets their personal and learning
needs and fosters a psychology of success (see Chapter 7). Moreover, we must recognize
that “the real world” is created each day in our classroom. We are manufacturing
the future by every act that we give rise to as a teacher.
Insert as Box near here.
Examining the Use of the Term the “Real World” of Schools
Frequently, we hear teachers use the phrase, the “real world,” as in “that
idea sounds nice, but it would not work in the real world.” On first listening,
it sounds like it is coming from the voice of experience. They have been around
the proverbial teaching “block” and can attest to how the “real world” works. But
as in the term “it works,” (discussed in Chapter 2) we need to listen carefully
to the messages beneath the words. It may seem harmless--on the surface--but in
essence we are being instructed to adopt someone else’s world-view. And it is certainly a convincing rhetorical
device. If someone states, “Boy, my students have a hard time being honest in class,”
we might think, “Gosh, that teacher is struggling with that issue in their class.
Good luck to them.” However, if someone declares, “In the real world people will
lie anytime they get the chance,” we can come away convinced that it is a fact,
and moreover that we should stop trusting our current students and any of those
we teach in the future. What is more accurate would be: a) the real world is rarely
defined by adages that include the phrase the “real world”; b) the use of the term
“real world” usually indicates a world-view that has been jaded and is fundamentally
dysfunctional; and c) it is likely our students who are paying the price for behavior
that is informed by this view. We examine this term in detail in Appendix X.
Chapter Reflection
3-f: Recall the last time you heard a teacher make
a suggestion to you that included the phrase “the real world.” What was the context?
In your estimation, what did the suggestion assume about the nature of students?
Teacher Language and Message Sub-Text
It has been said
that words define our reality (Buzzelli & Johnston, 2002; Devitt & Sterling, 1999). Herbert Kohl (2002)
suggests that everything that is said and how it is said is significant and that
“small things -- comments, questions, responses, phrases, tone -- often make a big
difference in students’ attitudes, not merely toward their teacher, but toward what
their teacher teaches.” The use of language in the classroom is a powerful influence
and defines the very nature of how we make meaning. This idea may sound rather abstract,
but examine the language in any classroom. As you listen and observe, ask yourself
these questions: “What is the purpose of the language used?” “What emotional climate
is being created by the use of the language?” “Is the language used consistent with
the non-verbal messages being sent?” In essence, “What is the sub-text of the speech?”
When you examine the words spoken by each of the three teachers represented in exercise
3.1 below, assume that they all possess a desire for roughly the same explicit outcomes.
Yet as you read their words, would you predict that their language exchanges would
produce similar classroom environments?
Exercise 3.1
First, examine the following teacher
language patterns. Second, classify and then develop a label for the types of language
that are occurring in each case. Use any words you feel best for your labels. Next,
as you reflect on each set of phrases, attempt to characterize the classroom climate
that would be manufactured by the use of each of these hypothetical language patterns.
Teacher A:
·
(After handing out an assignment) “I don’t want
to see all the sloppy papers that I saw the last time.”
·
“Stop talking or I will . . .”
·
(After a wrong answer) “No, you guys aren’t
getting this.”
·
(Sarcastic responses on a regular basis)
·
“I told you guys to get to work.”
·
“When are we ever going to learn?”
I’d label this language _________________.
The effect on the classroom climate (and/or socially constructed
reality) would be __________________________________________________________________.
Teacher B:
·
(Gives directions and students are still talking)
“Listen to me!”
·
“There is too much noise in the room.”
·
(After directions are given, and students were
not paying attention, and they do not do what the teacher wants) “OK, I told you
to keep the glue in the box until you get your paper ready,” (as students are still
not listening). “Put the glue away, I said!”
I’d label this language _________________.
The effect on the classroom climate (and/or socially constructed
reality) would be _________________________________________________________________.
Teacher C:
·
“Take a look at this group, see how they ________.
That is a good example of the process we are looking for.”
·
“I know it is almost lunchtime, but let’s stay
with it for 15 more minutes.”
·
(After some students were not attentive to directions)
“Someone was talking, I think I will start the directions over; I need 100% attention.”
·
(After an incorrect answer) “OK, you seemed
to be doing __________ and that would be right for that process, but what we were
looking for was ____________. Given that, do you want to try again?”
·
(After a poor effort) “We have got to do a better
job with this than last time. We need to get this stuff down by this week. We will
need to have it for the test next week and for your projects.”
I’d label this language _________________.
The effect on the classroom climate (and/or socially constructed reality)
would be_______________________________________________________________.
Reflecting on the Language
of Each of the Three Teachers
Before we explore the language of each teacher,
it is useful to recall that you did not know a great deal about any of these three
teachers depicted in exercise 3.1. You only had a small number of words from each
of their classes. What could possibly be inferred from such a small amount of information?
First, one would suppose that you inferred a great deal. Second, your assessment
was quite likely right on the mark.
When asked to characterize the words of Teacher
A, you probably used terms such as negative,
hostile, condescending, antagonistic and
threatening. Also you might have described the climate with words such as combative, hostile, depressed, and non-motivational. If so, these would be
accurate assessments. The climate in this class was quite antagonistic. Some students
chose to withdraw, while others chose to engage the teacher in a power struggle.
If we were to classify this teacher’s language on the management style matrix, it
would fall into the category of a 4-Style.
If we examine some of the phrases more closely
we can recognize why it was not difficult to see the eventual negative environment
that was created by the teacher.
·
“Stop talking or I will . . .” – This is
a classic example of a threat. In essence, a threat sends two messages
ineffective for motivating students to learn. First, “I am hostile and unsafe.”
Second, “I am too weak or lazy to take any meaningful action.”
·
“I don’t want to see all the sloppy papers
that I saw the last time.” – We could refer to this phrase as an example of “chronicling
failure.” This is when the teacher points out to the students their past inadequate
performance in a weak attempt to promote positive behavior in the future. While
this is very common, like many other forms of negative recognition, as we will discuss
in the next chapter, it has no positive value. It is past-oriented, does nothing
to help support future behavior, is weak and hostile.
·
“When are we ever going to learn?” – This
phrase is a put-down. Like threats, put-downs demonstrate that the teacher is
experiencing feelings of hostility, yet is too weak to take constructive action.
Even when said in jest, put-downs have a price. Humor can be a wonderful asset,
but victimizing humor can work against building a safe emotional climate.
The descriptors that you used to characterize
the language of Teacher B likely included words such as passive, timid, anxious, chaotic, frustrated and ineffective. Teacher B’s words reflect a
distinct lack of a sense of legitimate authority. Like Teacher A, this teacher puts
misguided faith in the use of negative recognition to achieve results. The passive
nature of this teacher’s approach would best be classified as 3-Style. The passivity
can be seen through Teacher B’s words. “Listen to me!” could best be described as
a plea. It implies a lack of an operating set of explicit boundaries or social contract.
He/she is making the appeal, in so many words, of “listen to me if you respect me.” This teacher’s efforts
demonstrate that relying on implied desire for respect rather than clear expectations
typically results in frustration and disappointment.
It is likely that you had a much more favorable
impression of the language used by Teacher C. You likely characterized her/his language
with such descriptors as supportive, positive,
respectful, effective, aware, nurturing and deliberate. And as we read the transcript we assumed a safe and sane
climate in the class. In examining the language of Teacher C, we read a desire for
clarity. The words “we” and “need” reflect a class that is working together for
positive goals. The subtext of Teacher C’s words could be characterized by the phrase
“I know that you can do it.” There is a clear sense that Teacher C’s class operates
at a high level on the effectiveness and function continuum.
If we were to sit at a table in the lunchroom
with each of these teachers it is likely that we would hear them express similar
goals. Each would certainly desire a high degree of learning. They would all suggest
that they had some behavioral challenges with some students, and all would, if given
enough time, offer a well-conceived explanation for why they do what they do. In
other words, each would have a similar and very intentional plan for dealing with
management on the explicit level. Yet, given the recognition that each class would,
over time, have an exceedingly different character, this example demonstrates the
enormous power of words to eventually define the classroom environment.
Chapter Reflection
3-g: The next time you are in a classroom, listen to
the words of the teacher. How would you characterize the teacher’s language? What
is the subtext? What is the result for the students and the classroom climate?
Social Frames
At the core of any functional
environment are implicitly operating social “frames.”
Social Frames are
culturally embedded, socially developed, implicit roles and relationships that operate
to help a society function (MacWhinney, 1999). In our society, as well as most others,
it is recognized that there are at least three
primary frames that implicitly operate. They involve the deference (behavior) shown
by a young person, and the deportment (response) shown by a significant adult. These
three frames are outlined in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2 Social Frame Development and
Classroom Management
|
Deference (student) |
Deportment (teacher/parent) |
|
Student shows RESPONSIBILITY... |
They should receive corresponding FREEDOM |
|
Student is SUCCESSFUL.... |
They should be REGOGNIZED |
|
Student shows LOYALTY and RESPECT.... |
They should be shown WARMTH and CARING |
Chapter Reflection
3-h
1.
What do you think would happen if in any
of these three cases a student showed the appropriate deference and did not get
the expected response from the teacher?
2.
What if the student was given the response
without having shown the deference? For example, being given freedom without showing
responsibility?
Collectively, these
frames operate to provide a society (or classroom) that makes sense and nurtures
the young person’s development. In a world that is governed by cause and effect,
and the boundaries supported by these frames, the young person is able to move through
it with confidence and security. Without functioning social frames, they are forced
to adapt to a world of uncertainty and threat. They may grow in their ability to
survive and cope, but will inevitably experience a limited amount of joy and satisfaction
of basic human needs. As we examine each of the three frames, we can see why they
are all necessary for success and as well as good predictors of the socio-psychological
health of any classroom.
Responsibility -- Freedom
First, a healthy
and functional classroom must promote a sound cause-and-effect relationship between
freedom and responsibility. This relationship is fundamental to the development
of a functional social contract, as we will discuss in Chapters 8, 9, and 10, and
is at the core of how any of us develops responsibility. If this frame is operating
successfully children/students are given greater opportunity to demonstrate their
ability to use freedom to the extent that they have shown the capacity to use the
freedom that they have been given. When a student does not demonstrate the ability
to be responsible in certain situations, freedom and choices are limited until such
time as the student is able to show the maturity and discretion necessary to earn
them in the future.
When this frame functions
poorly, corresponding problematic behavior is inevitable. Imagine the student who
has successfully demonstrated responsible and trustworthy behavior and is given
no corresponding freedom or choices. The predictable result is resentment and a
lessened interest in showing responsibility. In essence, the child will show us
that if they are going to be treated like a child, they may as well act like a child.
Conversely, those children who are given limitless freedoms without ever demonstrating
how to use that freedom in a responsible manner learn to be selfish and irresponsible.
Success -- Recognition
The second frame
deals with the relationship between achievement and recognition. Children should
be given recognition when they try and/or try and are successful. When this frame
is not functioning, we often find students who develop a “failure psychology,” (see
Chapter 7), and a tendency to give up easily. In its most acute form this may appear
as a negative identity pattern (see Chapter 14), or a bottomless need for praise
and affirmation. Many classroom management problems can be rooted back to students
using what Driekurs (1974) calls “mistaken goals” in the attempt to gain love and
affirmation in ways that are disruptive to the class.
Chapter Reflection 3-i: It may be useful at this point
to reflect on your own experience, and how effectively these social frames functioned
in your own life. Would you say that your parents gave you a healthy amount of recognition?
Or as in the case of many young people, did you feel that you were never quite able
to measure up? Explore your present response to these “parent tapes.” Do they play
out in your classroom r current relationships?
In the classroom,
promoting this frame aids the students in learning about their own personal value
and the value of their work. We also help the students make a positive cause-and-effect
association between what they put into something and what they get out of it. However,
when the student is given praise and rewarded for little or no effort, the student
does not learn the intrinsic value of the task. The result is typically a “spoiled”
student who views the situation with a sense of entitlement.
Loyalty -- Caring
Finally, a functional
class must be characterized by mutual respect between teacher and student (Pianta,
2006; Watson & Ecken, 2003). On the teacher’s side must be a display of respect
and caring, and on the side of the student is a sense of loyalty and respect to
the teacher and the class. Research tells us that students work harder for teachers
they like and respect (Hendley, Stables & Stables, 1996; Pianta, 2006).
And common sense tells us that students do not care what we know until they know
that we care. As we walk down the hallway
of any school and identify the classrooms in which there is a high incidence of
classroom management problems and/or a low level of motivation, typically we also
observe a corresponding lack of respect between the teacher and the students.
Chapter Reflection 3-j:
In many schools,
especially at the secondary level, we will find a number of students who have lost
faith in this third frame and/or with adults in general. Somewhere in this student’s
past he/she tried to show loyalty and respect, and received abuse and neglect
in return. As a result, the student is inclined to show little openness to engaging
in a frame that has cost them in the past. This appears as a lack of respect and
even hostility to a teacher. Therefore, if we want
this frame to operate, we will not be able to simply respond -- there will be no
deportment to respond to. So we will have to initiate it. What strategies can you
think of to help build this frame from your side of the equation?
Exploring the Principle
of the Classroom Emotional Bank Account
Related
to the social frames idea is the principle of the “emotional bank account” (Covey
1989). In essence, this principle suggests that we are either depositing or withdrawing
emotional investments into our relationships. This principle operates continuously
in the classroom as well. When we satisfy students’ basic needs, demonstrate real
care for them, promote their success, make them feel positive about themselves and
what they can do, recognize their gifts and efforts, we make deposits. And since
we can only withdraw what has been deposited, if there is nothing in the bank we
will be rather limited when we need make a withdrawal. For instance, when we ask
students to make an exceptional effort, do something challenging, be unusually patient,
take emotional risks, think beyond their self-interest, or be tolerant of annoyances
that we feel will lead to their growth, we make withdrawals. The evidence of the
amount of investment may never be explicitly discussed, but will be readily apparent
in any class. On the positive side, it takes the form of students working hard because
they feel like they “owe it to the teacher.” On the negative side, it takes the
form of students doing the minimum and acting largely out of self-interest.
Figure
3.3: Depicting the Principle of the Classroom Emotional Bank Account
Chapter Reflection 3-k: Joy is a teacher who likes to
get a lot done. She is demanding of her students. She is a no-nonsense kind of teacher.
She does a lot of lecturing and challenges them to listen and excel on her tests.
Because she expects attention, she usually gets it, but as the period goes on, the
level of side conversation and off-task behavior increases. How could Joy use the
principle of the “emotional bank account” to be more effective?
Social frames and the
principle of the emotional bank account operate whether we are aware of them or
understand how they work. Therefore, they can operate either entirely accidentally
or entirely largely intentionally -- that is, we can be very deliberate about cultivating
them to the benefit of our students. Maintaining some conscious attention and intention
related to how each area is functioning will lead to better outcomes. In addition,
it is useful to use each idea as a tool for periodic classroom climate self-assessment.
When things in the class feel a bit off, we can ask ourselves, “Which of the frames
is not functioning as well as it could?” and/or “What have I invested in the emotional
bank account lately?” As we reflect on our answers to these questions, it will likely
lead to an awareness of implications for possible adjustments we might want to make
to our teaching practices or thinking. Social frames will be revisited in more detail
in Chapter 7 as we assemble a recipe for what we will term “success psychology.”
How Power is Manifested in the Classroom
Interrelated to the use of language and social frames, the use of power
will define the implicit level of the classroom reality to a great degree (Buzzelli,
& Johnston, 2002).
Real
Power and the “Paradox of Power”
As teachers, it is tempting for us to think in
terms of “being powerful.” However, true power is internal – within us and within
each of our students. Our real power lies in our ability to act consciously and
intentionally rather than to give in to reactivity and unconsciousness. What many
call “power” is usually inner fear being projected outward in a manner that seeks
to dominate and control. Therefore in practice, trying to “be powerful” usually
leads us toward a desire to force our students to surrender to our authority, which
will eventually lead to either rebellion or conformity -- neither of which is desirable.
It may be more useful to think of power as a force,
rather than a trait. So if power is the force that makes things happen, what can
we do to create more of it? We will want to first raise the level of power and awareness
in our students, and second, channel that power toward positive and productive outcomes.
So in a sense we could say that the more power we give away, the more power exists.
This is the “paradox of power” (Fitzclarence & Giroux, 1984). Our use of authority
can help us gain the power to achieve desirable outcomes. But it is granted to us
by our students, and it will only exist to the degree that they see that it is leading
to a greater good. If we ask the question, “What can I do to appear more powerful?”
we will get lost. In most cases this chain of thought will lead to unconsciousness,
power struggles and resistance. If we ask ourselves such questions as, “what forms
of power can I give to students (that they have shown that they are ready for, i.e.,
the responsibility/freedom frame) that will make the class more productive and functional?”
and “how can I help raise the level of awareness and inner power in my students?”
it will lead to seeking effective ways to empower our students and overall function
and effectiveness.
Teacher Authority as Power
Since the teacher is in the role of the manager
of the class, they involve power in another form-- the authority to influence student
behavior. This could be termed “teacher authority.” Teacher authority is, in a sense,
“the right to ask others to do something.” As teachers we need to ask students to
do many things in a day, and we need to make our requests out of some basis of authority.
Without it, we would have little efficacy. French and Raven (1974), as they examined
classroom interactions, identified five basic forms of teacher authority. Each must
operate to some degree, but some will be emphasized and utilized more than others
for most of us. These five types of authority are: Attractive/Referent, Expert,
Reward, Coercive, and Position/Legitimate. Appendix __ outlines each of them in
more detail.
Chapter
Reflection 3-h:
What does real power look like in a classroom? Use the definition that real power
is related to that which makes things happen -- most importantly student motivation
and learning . In your experience, what are those things? Also, have you seen evidence
of this “paradox of power?
The
Power of Our Unspoken/implicit Expectations
Consider
how your expectations affect your class as a collective and your students individually.
Do you treat boys differently from girls? Why? Do you have different expectations
for students given differences you may perceive in their socio-economic backgrounds?
Most teachers would say that they do not, but as we examine the Anyon (1984) research,
(explored in more depth later in Chapter 11), the reality of what takes place in
schools generally suggests that we have very different expectations for students
depending on their “class.” As a result, we treat students of different groups very
differently.
If
we ask most teachers what their “explicit” level expectations are, we tend to get
somewhat similar responses. However, if we examine what expectations are held by
students we see dramatic differences. So, how are expectations communicated? The
answer is rather complicated, but involves verbal and non-verbal messages that are
inferred and processed by students. As we noted earlier, “we teach who we are.”
And we can assume that who we are and what we value will be communicated one way
or another. Our likes, dislikes, biases, world-views, culture, politics, assumptions
about class, gender, ethnicity and the like will all influence how students experience
our class.
Landmark Research Studies
Related to Expectancy and Academic Performance:
The effects of implicit expectations can be seen clearly
in a notable study conducted by Rosenthal and Jacobsen (1968), entitled “Pygmalion
in the Classroom.” In the study, teachers were given the list of their students
for the next term. On the list some students were identified as “rising stars.”
The rising stars were said to be more gifted and were predicted to show a greater
degree of progress and performance than the other students. In actuality, the students
were randomly chosen from the class list. Can you guess what happened when the students
were tested at the end of the term?
Chapter Reflection 3-l: What
did you predict happened? How can you explain what did happen? The students were
never told that they were identified as rising stars, yet they outperformed their
peers. How do you account for this difference?
If you guessed that over time the “rising stars” were
shown to have significantly out-performed their classmates, you are correct. The
researchers demonstrated that the expectancy and subsequent differential treatment
of the teachers created a variable in the learning experience that produced a powerful
outcome.
What are the lessons of this research? First, examining
the implicit level of the classroom reality--especially as it relates to expectations--helps
us see that good intentions are often not enough to keep us from sending harmful
or limiting messages to our students and children. The teachers in the previous
study no doubt had good intentions for all of their students, yet their lack of
self-awareness resulted in a dramatic difference in the way that they treated them.
Second, we want to consider how we could project the kinds of expectations that
could promote the success and “success psychology” (see Chapter 7) of all of our
students. In other words, we want to treat all of our students as “rising stars.”
Chapter Reflection 3-m: Given that the students in the study above were randomly
sampled and did not know that they were “rising stars,” and the teachers were not
instructed to do anything different with them, how can you explain such a dramatic
difference in performance overtime? How did the teachers treat the students who
were identified as rising stars differently?
What is so problematic
about the “accidental classroom?”
When
we accept a high level of unconsciousness and an “accidental” quality in our classrooms,
the typical result are a corresponding high degree of what could be termed classroom
dramas, psychological games and implicit rules that our students will be forced
to negotiate. When they have to spend a large amount of time trying to negotiate
this underlying set of rules to the classroom environment, the typical result is
that they remain stuck in “survival mode” and are not able to move into more fully
functional states of mind. And as a class, the result is a group that stays in a
rut of self-protectionism, never able to move toward greater levels of growth or
function. Moving up the effectiveness continuum therefore requires exchanging the
accidental quality of the class with one defined by intentionality.
HARNESSING THE POWER OF SOCIAL/INDIRECT
LEARNING
Social
Learning Theory implies that we can learn from situations
by making inferences from what we observe (what happens to others) without having
to be directly involved (Solomon & Perkins, 1998). For example, consider the following two situations below.
1. As we
drive down the freeway we observe a car on the side of the road that has been pulled
over by the highway patrol. We make the decision to slow down as we deduce that
this same fate could happen to us.
2.
We observe Person A act in a way that impresses Person B (whose respect and admiration
we desire). We note that Person B responds positively when Person A talks about
travel. The next time we interact with Person B, we find opportunities to bring
up the topic of travel.
These two situations are examples of the principle of social or indirect learning. Lessons were learned indirectly through observation rather than through direct experience. We can see this same principle being demonstrated in the classroom. In fact, it is happening almost continuously. Most of what we learn about what is appropriate or what should be avoided is learned indirectly. For example, at some point in our time in school we have likely experienced being in a classroom situation in which a fellow student made a remark or answered a question that a teacher reacted to in a publicly critical manner. Recall your thought process and subsequent behavior at the time. Along with most every student in the class, your reaction was likely to think something to the effect, “I am not going to let that happen to me.” And as a result, you may have determined that it was not worth the risk of volunteering ideas in the class, and to be more careful about how you responded in the future. Whatever the lesson that you took away from the incident, it is likely that you made a judgment based on what you observed that you used to guide your future behavior. The teacher did not directly criticize your answer, but your response to the event may have been nearly as profound as if it had happened to you personally.
Insert in Box to the side of first paragraph
Bandura and the Bobo Doll
Albert Bandura has been a leader in the field of behavioral psychology and
social learning (1971; 1986). One famous experiment by Bandura involved groups of
children and a Bobo doll. In this experiment, he gave each group of children the
same verbal directions -- “don’t touch the doll and go play with the toys.” Behind
the researcher was a video screen. On the screen students were shown various video
scenarios. In one the children on the screen went past the doll and began playing
with the toys. In another case, the children aggressively attacking the plastic
clown called the Bobo doll. In the first case the children imitated the children
on the video and walked past the doll to play with the toys. In the second case,
the children disregarded the verbal directions, but followed the aggressive modeling.
The researchers went on to show students a variety of other kinds of modeling on
the video screen and then observed the effects. Students who watched violence in
any form were more likely to treat the doll aggressively than the students who watched
non-violent material. In conclusion, the researchers concluded that the power of
modeling (i.e., indirect or social learning) was in some cases more powerful than
direct instruction.
This event illustrates the social learning mechanism in action.
Chapter Reflection 3-n: As you reflect on your
experience as a student. Can you recall situations in which you changed your behavior
as a result of something that you observed happening to someone else, but did not
happen to you directly?
Figure 4.1 Diagram depicts the dynamics in
a social learning situation
[[editing
note: please find characters for this diagram that are more generic – stick figures
are OK]]
Student (S)
Teacher (T)
Other Students (O)
The
interaction described in the example of the critical remark above characterizes
a dynamic that could be described as (T) Teacher → (S) Student interaction
with an audience of others (O). As we examine all of the potential dynamics in Figure
4.1 a series of principles emerge. Here we examine what each of these principles
looks like in the classroom. Throughout the coming chapters of the book, these principles
will be highlighted in relation to their practical applications.
Principle One: The students as a collective learn
lessons indirectly from the interactions between the teacher and particular students.
When
we interact or intervene with one student or group of students, we have an audience
eager to learn what we operate. What we do sends a message to the rest of the class.
As the other students observe our treatment of one student, they make decisions
related to how to act in the future based on what they observed. These lessons lead
to the students’ judgments about many things. First, students learn to what degree
that they feel we can be trusted. Do we keep our word? Do we act rationally? Are
we approachable? Second, students learn about our level of reliability. It is rare
to find a group of students who is not highly concerned (if not obsessed) with fairness.
They want to know, are we consistent? Do we have favorites? Do we act unpredictably?
Chapter Reflection 3-o: Recall a situation in which you felt that
a teacher had “favorites.” What information did you use to infer that this was the
case? Did the teacher ever say directly that these students were his/her favorites?
If not, what led you to the conclusion that they did?
Third,
students learn about the soundness of the social contract (or rules, boundaries,
expectations, code of conduct, etc.). The level of integrity of our social contract
(as we will examine in detail in Chapters 8, 9, and 10) is based on whether it is
administered without prejudice as perceived by our students. When students perceive
their teacher treating each of them with the same level of regard, being equitable
and fair, and being true to the tenets of the social contract, they learn to trust
not only the teacher but the operating principles of the class. This trust leads
to a sense of emotional safety and security. Without this foundation of trust, very
little of what could be considered transformational
(i.e., community, success psychology, responsibility) will be possible.
Chapter Reflection 3-p: Recall a class in which you felt there was a great deal
of inconsistency along with perceived differential treatment. How did it make you
feel? Did you feel emotionally safe? How did you and the other students compensate
for the teacher’s inconsistency and the feelings that it engendered within you?
Principle Two -- A: Peer influences: The highly
influenced student.
1) For some students peers may be a more significant
source of influence than the teacher. For many students,
impressing peers may represent a larger need than meeting the expectations of the
teacher, especially if the student has an unmet need for love/belonging.
We
may have one or more students that seem to be fixated on peers as their reference
group, and seem much less concerned about your expectations for their behavior.
This need for peer approval seems to be strongest in the middle school years. For
some teachers this can even lead to an avoidance of students of this age. But while
we cannot significantly change their needs or alter their cognitive developmental
patterns, we can creatively work with the situation to the benefit of everyone.
1. First, we need to stop taking offense at what appears
to be a lack of respect for adults—you, in this case. We should continue to model
respect and expect it from all of their students.
2. Second, we need to make a genuine connection with the
student. We need to send the message to these students that they are liked, needed,
and believed in.
3. Third, we need to help this student contribute. If the
student is put in situations in which they are able to contribute to the welfare
of others, they will be in a better position to meet the need for belonging and
self-efficacy as well as meet the teacher’s need for a student who is responsible.
For instance, you might give them small leadership roles, such as passing out papers,
or setting up an activity. And when they do, you need to make it clear to them that
you appreciate what they are doing for the “good of the class.”
Chapter Reflection 3-q: What is your first instinct with a student who seems to
be uninterested in meeting your expectations, but is very attuned to what others
in the class think? Is it to teach him/her a lesson by being emotionally distant
in return? Or to be passive-aggressive toward him/her until they change their ways?
What is the likely result of these responses? In your judgment, do they lead to
things getting better or worse?
Principle Two - B: Peer influences: The highly
influential student.
2)
We need to encourage our popular and influential students to support group goals.
Very often we will
have students in our class to whom other student looks as a model or to set the
dispositional tone in the room. For many of these students, power comes from popularity
and their place at the top of the social hierarchy. For others, it comes from being
a large and dynamic personality. For still others, it comes from having persuasive
skills and charisma beyond their years, and thus the ability to influence the opinions
and decisions of the group. Each teacher will find her or himself in a different
situation, and therefore our relationships with these types of students will all
be unique. However, if these strong-personality students take on a sense of entitlement,
or decide to work against the goals of the group, it will create a political problem
that can have a divisive affect on our ability to teach and lead.
There are a few common ingredients that will help support these influential students’ being positive ingredients in the class as opposed to our political opponents. To support these ingredients, it will be useful to take the following steps:
1. Let the students know that you like and respect them and recognize who they are and what they can do. But they need to know that they have influence. We know it. They know it. But there is no place for a sense of entitlement, and in our class, influence comes with some responsibility.
2. Help the student recognize how to be a positive leader in the class. It may help to point out cases in which you have already seen them do things that demonstrate positive leadership. Being concrete will make the idea of their position of responsibility less threatening if it is new to them.
3. Remember that they are still kids--even if they are the center on the basketball team, or the prom queen, or if their father is the mayor. For some, this student will bring back memories of students who intimidated us, looked down on us, or irritated us when we were in school. However, do not blame the student or yourself for having these feelings. Simply recognize that you are the leader today, and let the past go.
4. Help the student recognize that it feels better to be a positive leader than someone who has to play a game of defending their sense of entitlement. It may not be what popular culture is telling them, but when they look inside themselves, they will see that it feels a lot better.
Chapter Reflection 3-r: Recall from your days as a student how the popular students
acted. How would you characterize this? Were they leaders or did they project a
sense of entitlement? What did the teachers in the school do to encourage their
behavior in ether of these directions?
Principle Four: Reverse effect -- Students also
learn what behaviors have an effect on the teacher through indirect observation.
Students in a college-level psychology class once
decided to discover how effective they could be at modifying the behavior of a guest
instructor. They came up with a plan without giving away what they were doing or
letting the instructor in on the experiment. Through the use of either smiling and
laughing or frowning and yawning as their forms of reinforcement, they were able
to behaviorally modify the instructor’s actions. By the end of the period he had
been conditioned to lecture from the far corner of the room with his arms folded.
Chapter Reflection 3-s: Recall a class in which
a student or two learned that saying or doing certain things could “push the teacher’s
buttons.” What was the response from the rest of the class? What did they consequently
do, as a result of what they had observed?
Very
quickly, students learn what affects us. They learn what we like, what pushes our
buttons, and what they can do to gain more power. For example, we may have been
part of a class in which one or more students learned that if they asked the teacher
questions about their personal life, latest vacation, or favorite athletic team,
the teacher obliged them by going on about that subject and therefore spent less
time on the material related to the course. This “teacher conditioning” process
can be innocuous, or it can have substantially destructive effects. In an extreme
but rather common case students can train the teacher to allow them to become apathetic,
unmotivated, and comfortable with adopting a “failure psychology.” In this case
they have conditioned the teacher to treat them as “falling stars,” rather than
“rising stars” and the teacher has allowed the training to become a conditioned
attitude.
Understanding
this principle is necessary to maintain an adequate level of awareness related to
the many influences that condition us each day. Are we allowing students to push
our buttons? Are we getting hooked into power struggles? Are we leading, or are
we being led? A useful strategy for dealing with student manipulation is to raise
it to the level of awareness and make it transparent. For example, in the case of
the students asking spurious questions, we may want to respond, “I know you guys
want to keep asking questions about what I thought about the game to keep from getting
started, but we need to start now and if we have time, we can talk about the game
later.” In the case of the students wanting to quit, we may want to respond with,
“I hear you telling me that you cannot do this, but I have seen you do it before,
so let’s all do our best and make the effort and see if we can get it. I am betting
you can.”
Chapter Reflection 3-t: Recall Chapter 3, where
we observed the notion that “we teach who we are.” Much of this is modeling social
interactions. Choose one teacher that you have observed lately. What are students
learning from this teacher’s modeling?
Principle Three: 1
x 1 can sometimes equal 30. Using the Social Learning Mechanism to Our advantage
in Our Instruction.
Using
indirect learning effectively can have a powerful effect on the quality and engagement
level of our instruction. Our management will be more effective when we model skills
and consider indirect learning dynamics in discussions, questioning, and feedback. Two of the many powerful
indirect learning strategies are the use of public positive recognitions and using
questioning to keep students cognitively “on the hook.”
·
The Power of Positive
Recognitions
When we give feedback to one student privately,
we deliver information to that one student. When we give positive feedback to a
student publicly, we have delivered indirect information to all the students in
the class. This strategy provides both more concrete as well as more abundant feedback.
We will follow up on the idea of positive recognition in more detail in the next
chapter.
·
Keeping Students Cognitively
“On the Hook”
When we ask an individual student a question,
we engage one at a time. If we do this on a regular basis, the students learn that
they are “off the hook” when we are engaging someone else. No matter
what we tell them, we send the message that they are a passive audience until it
is their turn. But if we simply alter our strategy somewhat, the dynamics will change
dramatically. Part of the solution to keeping students cognitively on the hook is
the purposeful use of asking questions. Evertson, Anderson, Anderson, & Brophy,
1980) demonstrated that more effective teachers asked more and more purposeful questions
when compared to less effective teachers. For example instead of responding to a
student with “Yes, that is correct, good job,” we could instead triangulate that
answer to the whole class by asking, “Interesting, how do you think __ arrived at
that answer?” We will explore this technique in more detail in Chapter 11.
Chapter Reflection 3-u: Recall a situation in which
as a student, your teacher went around the room and called on students one at a
time in a fixed pattern. What were you thinking about as other students responded?
Was it related to the academic material? Did you feel accountable or engaged in
the learning process?
Principle Five: Making tomorrow better as a result
of what we do today.
When we use the social learning model in our decision-making,
it can often help us judge the benefits of any particular practice. It can be very
useful to ask ourselves the question, “What
indirect learning will result from my present actions?” What may seem like
a good idea for today and/or for one student may in fact not be so effective in
the long-term, and/or may result in some undesirable indirect learning for the group.
In fact, many strategies that prove to be effective in the long-term are based in
counter-intuitive reasoning, and may even seem to have limited use on the surface.
Therefore, we might want to ask ourselves the following questions when we consider
a strategy, “What are students learning from the repeated use of this strategy that
I am considering?” and “What am I liable to experience more of in the future as
a result of the social learning that takes place?”
Many of the strategies described in this book
may seem as though they are somewhat indirect and may involve more long-range focus
than those to which most of us are accustomed. However, many of the strategies that
we might find to have an instant impact actually have substantial negative side-effects
when examined in light of their indirect and/or long-term effects. It is tempting
to do “what works” today. Nevertheless, if we are committed to transformative results
and not simply convenience, remaining intentional and maintaining a long-range view
is essential.
Below is a list of strategies that may seem on
the surface -- and in the short-term -- to be effective, but in the long run tend
to teach unwanted lessons and as a result promote unwanted outcomes.
- Bailing
out students who act pathetic or helpless (Chapter 14)
- Hovering over and giving a disproportionately high
amount of attention to misbehaving students (Chapter 10)
- Dissolving groups that cannot get along
(Chapter 12)
- Asking
for excuses (Chapter 11)
- Encouraging
tattle-tales (Chapter 11)
- Appeasing
students through deals and bargains (Chapter 11)
- Giving
inactivity as a reward or activity as a punishment (Chapter 10)
- Taking
an authoritarian (4-Style) approach with a defiant student (Chapters 13, 14,
and 18)
- Use
of personal non-specific praise (Chapters 6 and 7)
- Use
of public shame in the form of names on the board or colored card systems (Chapter
20)
Chapter Reflection 3-v: How many of these strategies
have you used? Do you still use them? Before reading the explanations for why they
have undesirable effects in the coming chapters, predict what those effects might
be.
Throughout the coming chapter of the book, we
will need to revisit the social learning model often, as it helps bring a more complete
perspective to any classroom event. Considering our actions within the perspective
of indirect learning can help us be more effective as we navigate the many skills
required to be an effective classroom leader. When you see the T-S-O triangular
figure appearing in the remaining chapters, it will signal a social learning model
reference
CONCLUSION
Practicing conscious awareness allows us to act more intentionally and less
reactively. Awareness of the “hidden curriculum,” and the more implicit aspects
of the overall classroom environment lead to moving more of our teaching above the
line of conscious recognition and into the intentional realm. In Chapter 16, we will revisit the idea of how
our thinking and level of awareness affects our effectiveness and state of mind
throughout the day. In the next chapter, we will explore how to promote effective,
intentional classroom expectations.
Journal Reflections:
1.
Is
the notion of a “hidden curriculum” new to you? What portion of the curriculum do
you feel is implicit or hidden? Why?
2.
When
you reflect on the idea of “teaching who you are,” what feelings does it evoke?
3.
Recall
an event in your life that resulted in a profound life lesson that you learned indirectly.
What implications does this event have for your teaching?
4.
Do
you feel that most teachers adequately consider what the long-term and indirect/social
learning effects of their management strategies will be? Why?
Classroom Activities:
1.
Sitting
in your small groups, complete exercise 3.1 on your own and then discuss the labels
you used for each teacher with the other members of your group. Did you find that
you characterized the effects on the classroom reality in a similar way for each
teacher?
2.
In
Appendix G you will find the five forms of teacher authority. Rank each from one
to five, e.g., 1: I would use most , to 5: I would use least. As you examine the
rankings what do you think that says about you as a teacher? If you are part of
a class, have a few students volunteer their rankings. Compare the rankings and
what they imply.
3.
In
groups, discuss the implications of the social learning theory. In the last class
that you observed or taught, give an example of the indirect learning that you observed.
Offer the others in the group one idea for a practice that seems useful, and one
that you now recognize to be of limited value, given the social learning model implications
of each practice.
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