Searching for resources and recording information

With tentative thesis statement or research question in hand, you've got what will likely become the focal point of your paper. You have a focus, a goal, a purpose--in essence, the bones of your essay. But now you need flesh for those bones; that's where research comes in.

To conduct research, follow the advice outlined in these three important steps:

1.        Understand the types of resources

2.        Critically read and evaluate those sources

3.        Note-take effectively

Understand the types of resources

What are the two main types?

There are two types of support: primary and secondary. The names refer to the degree of "distance" to the topic.

A primary source is an original document or account that is not about another document or account but stands on its own. For example, any novel, poem, play, diary, letter, or other creative work is a primary source. The data from a research study also constitutes a primary source because it comes straight from the participants' replies. Interviews, not of experts but of people actually experiencing something "on the scene," are also primary sources.

Secondary sources are ones that interpret primary sources or are otherwise a step removed. A journal article or book about a poem, novel, or play or a commentary about what an interview signifies is a secondary source. Your paper will likewise become a secondary source.

So how do you research primary sources?

Texts: Once you have an argument in mind, reread them. Highlight, underline, scribble in the margins, or use sticky notes to pick out what you need. Remember, this time you won't be reading for comprehension (i.e., what is the plot of the story), but for specific examples that support your gut feeling about how or why something is going on in the story. Be sure to note down glaring contradictory evidence too. You'll need to acknowledge that in your paper or else revise your thesis depending on how strong the counter-evidence turns out to be.

Interviews: When you're not trying to sell someone something, people are very willing to talk and share. Ask around and locate someone through your network of friends and family (maybe the your cousin's boss' sister just settled a court case on an issue you're exploring). If that doesn't pan out, look in the phonebook or the Internet for professional associations where you can often get in touch with people in a particular field.

And if I need secondary sources?

You can search the Web for government documents or your city hall for community records but in most cases your secondary-source research begins at the library.

Start with a book search if appropriate. Go the library’s web page and select the OASYS catalog. You will search primarily by keyword or by subject. Type in keywords from your thesis or research question, usually in combination because one word at a time will not give you the specific information you're looking for.

For more on searching for books, see the library’s “Research Help” section on finding books for research projects http://www.oxy.edu/departments/library/rhelp/books.html.

If you find some possible books, write down the call number so that you can find the sources. Once you're at the right shelf, locate the book while scanning the books near it. Often, there are some real gems in the vicinity. Look at the Bibliography of the book for pointers to other texts and follow up on those leads as well as keeping the one you have with you for the time being. But what if you find books in the catalog and they're all out?

Now if you don't find books, one of two things may be going on: you aren't conducting effective searches in which case you might want to consult the Library of Congress Subject Heading Index for ways of better representing your words, or there may just be other sources more relevant to your subject. For example, if your paper depends on incredibly up-to-date information, books might not be the way to go. A combination of journals, the Web, and interviews might be a better route.

Journal articles can be as valuable as books for most disciplines. Leafing through an academic journal, written by and for professionals in a given field, is like entering a conversation between experts. Magazines and newspapers might be helpful if you need background information on recent events.

To search for journal articles, use FirstSearch and/or ProQuest. Both allow you to search collections of databases, and both sometimes contain the full-text of articles. For more information on using FirstSearch, see the library’s quick guide instructions in the “Research Help” section (http://www.oxy.edu/departments/library/rhelp/firstsearch.html). For more information on using ProQuest, see the library’s quick guide instructions in the “Research Help” section (http://www.oxy.edu/departments/library/rhelp/proquestshort.html). To search for recent news in magazines and newspapers use Lexis-Nexis.

If the library doesn't have a journal you need, talk to your reference librarian about an interlibrary loan. Articles can usually be faxed in less than a week from other libraries.

The Web is another great tool, but use it carefully. Anyone can post information on the Internet and anyone can change what is up there, bringing up questions of authority and validity. We will give you links on evaluating online information in a couple of sections. For now, the best kinds of information you'll find here are avenues for finding people to interview (newsgroups, mailing lists, professional association home pages), access to government documents, material from large organizations and academic institutions, and articles on digital or web-based issues.

Besides primary texts, interviews, books, journals, and the Web, there are a myriad other sources you can use, but rather than overwhelm you with everything you can access at a library, we suggest you master these five first. Then, if and when you want to start tackling microfilm, microfiche, specialized CD-ROMs, and census reports, talk to your reference librarian for guidance.

Critically read and evaluate the sources

Now that you have some materials in front of you, either at the library or at home, it's time to critically analyze them. The gist of being critical is not "to criticize," but to question, to not take anything you read at face value. Structure, purpose, audience, and author are four important dimensions of the text to pay close attention to:

Structure

If you're starting with a book, look at the table of contents. See the shape of what's to come and identify places that your thesis or question might be most directly addressed. Notice the subsections. Skim the Preface or Introduction to establish context for the discussion and determine the author's intent. The author's thesis statement just may pop up here; be on the lookout for it. Glance at any appendices, diagrams, tables, or figures. Look at the topics listed in the Index at the back. Which of the entries has the most page numbers listed next to it? This will give you an indication of the subjects that contribute to the real scope of the book.

For a journal article, read the "abstract" for a summary. If it seems to address your question or thesis, then read the Background or Introduction section, which will normally have some kind of "literature review" or summary of what others have said. This context is useful for seeing how and why the issue has evolved over time. Conclusions or Discussions are a great place to turn to next before getting bogged down in minute detail. Did the author answer the research question or support the thesis? If you can clearly see where the article was intending to go and where it ended up, then you can go back and read the body for details. Starting with the intro and conclusion is a good strategy for analyzing essays as well, online or otherwise.

Purpose

Examine the title and first few paragraphs. What is the author trying to do? What is his or her bias? Any assumptions to be challenged? Look at the publisher or institutional/organizational affiliation of the author. Does the person have a vested interest in swaying you one way or another?

Audience

Who does the intended audience appear to be? How narrow or broad is it? To answer this, look at stylistic choices such as diction and tone. For instance, are there a lot of technical words? If so, look them up. And finally, what stake does the target audience have in the issue? In other words, why would the audience be reading the text? Who would you be imagining yourself talking to in your paper?

Author

Who is the author? Is it someone your professor has mentioned or someone you've come across in your course readings? Has the person been mentioned in other texts or bibliographies of other texts? Presence in the scholarly community is one of the ways to establish authority. Another is education and/or expertise. Is the person a teacher or researcher from a reputable academic institution?

Evaluation Quiz

After reading and analyzing your works, you should answer yes to each of the following three questions:

Does the date of the source match the level of currency you need for your paper? A source from the late 1970s wouldn't be appropriate for an examination of current multi-media issues or the latest microsurgery techniques, but it would still be appropriate for a study of Homer. Currency is more important in subject areas that are frequently researched (where theories are frequently rejected and updated); therefore, the physical and social sciences need more current sources than subjects like literature.

Is the author a credible source? In other words, has authority and expertise been established? There aren't ulterior motives coloring the text?

Is the source relevant to your thesis or question, i.e., useful? If the source argues thoughtfully and logically, helps you look at something differently, and gives you possible answers for your question or evidence for your thesis, then it's a keeper.

Note-take effectively

You already started the process of note-taking in the previous section, even before putting pen to paper. How? Well, to take notes, you need to know what to take notes on; by analyzing the text, you've likely already located the sections or chapters most useful to you.

·         What should my notes look like?

·         What should I write down?

·         Specific tips to avoid plagiarism

·         Specific tips to facilitate comprehension later on

What should my notes look like?

The point-form or sentences debate (on loose-leaf or on 3x5 index cards for easy shuffling) is simply a matter of preference. Some students are comfortable with points; others prefer summarizing and paraphrasing right into rough sentences to make drafting easier. Try both methods and see which one you prefer. Some students also prefer loose-leaf for note-taking while others religiously use index cards with one point on each card. Again, both techniques have their pros and cons so try them out and see which one is for you. Above all, note-taking involves writing. Highlighting can be an important first step, but used alone, it's simply too passive.

So what should I write down?

·         Anything and everything that will flesh out your thesis statement or research question.

·         Be succinct in whatever you write, but don't rely too heavily on mental notes. Remember, notes are a bit like drafts: you will not end up using everything you write down.

·         Remember that it's fine to copy down duplicating facts. You may need them later on to defend your thesis. For major issues, having more than one person who agrees with you strengthens your point. Just make sure to record who said what each time.

·         It's also okay to copy down contradictory information. Analytical papers often include opposing views and even for argumentative papers, acknowledging an opposing viewpoint that is easily disproved by its counterpoint is always a good rhetorical tool.

·         Whatever you take notes on, be sure to take them from more than one or two key sources. Using a variety will lend weight to your argument, broaden your view of the topic, and demonstrate to your professor the thoroughness of your research.

·         The final piece of data to record is a working bibliography of all the sources you consult. Neatly record all the pertinent bibliographical information you'll need for any citation format you decide to use (author, title, (editor, translator, and/or edition number if there is one), publisher, city of publication, year of publication, issue number, volume, and page numbers).

·         The call number of a book, the search terms you entered into any database, and any URLs (web site addresses) for online information come in handy for easy RE-access to a resource should something come in question later on.

Specific tips to avoid plagiarism

Paraphrase most of the time. That is, compress and write in your own words what you understand to be the basic meaning of a sentence or a block of text. Highlighting key passages or photocopying key pages can be good first steps towards extracting important information, but before you start your draft, translate and rewrite your notable research findings now. Don't count on doing it later when the temptation of keeping beautifully-crafted sentences in the body of your paper (without acknowledgment) is even greater.

Take care to distinguish between:

·         background or commonly known facts in the field that you can assume your audience already knows (e.g., "Radio has evolved into an incredibly portable and music-based medium"). Your own knowledge acquired from a course makes you a great source of such background data!

·         other not-so-commonly-known facts such as some unbelievable statistic you found that you'll have to cite at the point of discussion (e.g., "Research has shown that 95% of students listen to the radio while they study")

·         opinions which are usually the most contentious of all. If Dr. Z "believes" something is the case, then record that he believes it.

Though you should limit this, if you absolutely must take a direct quotation, (1) change to a different colored pen, (2) put huge quotation marks around it, and (3) don't forget the page number and source. Don't count on remembering later that it was copied down word for word; you might accidentally believe you paraphrased it in which case careless plagiarism will probably take place.

Specific tips to facilitate comprehension later on

·         Make sure you know where every note comes from. A good way to keep track is to number each entry in your working bibliography and then label each page with notes from a source with its corresponding number.

·         Put a page number next to all notes just in case you need to know where it came from to come back to the source or to use the note in your paper.

·         If you don't understand what a particular resource is saying, don't use it or you'll risk misinterpreting the information and undermining your argument. A good rule of thumb is that if a note doesn't make sense at the point of writing, it won't magically make sense later.

·         If you find ideas or reactions coming to you while you're researching, make sure you keep your thoughts and insights separate from your other notes. Using different colored pens or physically shifting from "me" to "others" sheets is a great way to maintain the distinction.

·         Above all, keep everything as legible as possible; you'll thank yourself later. Neat notes especially count for bibliographic information and URLs.